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nged after 1808 when king john vi began to encourage immigration from european countries outside portugal 261 262 the first to arrive in numbers were the swiss of whom some 2 000 settled in rio de janeiro province the southeast during 1818 263 they were followed by germans and irish who immigrated to brazil in the 1820s german settlers gravitated mostly to the southern provinces where the environment was more like their homeland 264 in the 1830s due to the instability of the regency european immigration ground to a halt only recovering after pedro ii took the reins of government and the country entered a period of peace and prosperity 265 farmers in the southeast enriched by lucrative coffee exports created the partnership system a form of indentured servitude to attract immigrants the scheme endured until the end of the 1850s when the system collapsed and was abandoned the failure was rooted in the large debts european settlers incurred to subsidize their travel and settlement expenses leaving them as virtual slaves to their employers 266 immigration suffered another decline during the paraguayan war which lasted from 1864 to 1870 267 immigrant numbers soared during the 1870s in what came to be called the great immigration up to that point around 10 000 europeans arrived in brazil annually but after 1872 their numbers increased dramatically 268 it is estimated by the brazilian institute of geography and statistics that 500 000 europeans immigrated to brazil between 1808 and 1883 269 the figure for european settlers arriving between 1884 and 1893 climbed to 883 668 269 the number of europeans immigrating continued to rise in the following decades with 862 100 between 1894 and 1903 and 1 006 617 between 1904 and 1913 269 from 1872 until 1879 the nationalities forming the bulk of the new settlers were composed of portuguese 31 2 italians 25 8 germans 8 1 and spanish 1 9 268 in the 1880s italians would surpass the portuguese 61 8 to 23 3 respectively and the spanish would displace the germans 6 7 to 4 2 respectively 268 other smaller groups also arrived including russians poles and hungarians 270 since nearly all european immigrants settled in the southeastern and southern areas of the empire ethnic distribution already unequal before the mass immigration became even more divergent between regions 271 for a nation that had a small widely scattered population 4 000 000 in 1823 and 14 333 915 in 1890 the immigration of more than 1 380 000 europeans had a tremendous effect upon the country s ethnic composition in 1872 the year of the first reliable national census white brazilians represented just over a third 38 1 of the total population in 1890 they had increased to a little under half 44 0 of all brazilians 247 slavery edit main article slavery in brazil a brazilian family and its female house slaves c 1860 slaves and their free children on a coffee farm in brazil c 1885 in 1823 a year after independence slaves made up 29 of the population of brazil a figure which fell throughout the lifetime of the empire from 24 in 1854 to 15 2 in 1872 and finally to less than 5 in 1887 the year before slavery was completely abolished 272 slaves were mostly adult males from southwestern africa 273 slaves brought to brazil differed ethnically religiously and linguistically each identifying primarily with his or her own nation of origin rather than by a shared african ethnicity 274 some of the slaves brought to the americas had been captured while fighting intertribal wars in africa and had then been sold to slave dealers 275 276 slaves and their descendants were usually found in regions devoted to producing exports for foreign markets 277 sugarcane plantations on the eastern coast of the northeast region during the 16th and 17th centuries are typical of economic activities dependent on slave labor 278 in northern maranhão province slave labor was used in cotton and rice production in the 18th century 279 in this period slaves were also exploited in minas gerais province where gold was extracted 280 slavery was also common in rio de janeiro and são paulo during the 19th century for the cultivation of coffee which became vital to the national economy 281 the prevalence of slavery was not geographically uniform across brazil around 1870 only five provinces rio de janeiro with 30 bahia with 15 minas gerais with 14 são paulo with 7 and rio grande do sul also with 7 held 73 of the nation s total slave population 282 these were followed by pernambuco with 6 and alagoas with 4 among the remaining 13 provinces none individually had even 3 283 most slaves worked as plantation laborers 282 relatively few brazilians owned slaves and most small and medium sized farms employed free workers 284 slaves could be found scattered throughout society in other capacities some were used as house servants farmers miners prostitutes gardeners and in many other roles 285 many emancipated slaves went on to acquire slaves and there were even cases of slaves who had their own slaves 286 287 while slaves were usually black or mulatto there were reported cases of slaves who appeared to be of european descent the product of generations of inter ethnic sexual relations between male slave owners and their female mulatto slaves 288 even the harshest slave owners adhered to a long established practice of selling slaves along with their families taking care not to separate individuals 289 slaves were regarded by law as properties the ones who were freed immediately became citizens with all civil rights guaranteed the only exception being that until 1881 freed slaves were barred from voting in elections although their children and descendants could vote 282 nobility edit main article brazilian nobility a state ceremony in the old cathedral of rio de janeiro the attendees are wearing court dress the nobility of brazil differed markedly from its counterparts in europe noble titles were not hereditary with the exception of members of the imperial family 290 and those who had received a noble title were not considered to belong to a separate social class and received no appanages stipends or emoluments 290 however many ranks traditions and regulations in brazil s system of nobility were co opted directly from the portuguese aristocracy 291 292 during pedro i s reign there were no clear requisites for someone to be ennobled during pedro ii s reign apart from the regency period during which the regent could not grant titles or honors 293 the nobility evolved into a meritocracy 291 with titles granted in recognition of an individual s outstanding service to the empire or for the public good noble rank did not represent recognition of illustrious ancestry 294 295 it was the emperor s right as head of the executive branch to grant titles and honors 291 the titles of nobility were in ascending order baron viscount count marquis and duke 291 apart from position in the hierarchy there were other distinctions between the ranks counts marquises and dukes were considered grandees of the empire while the titles of barons and viscounts could be bestowed with greatness or without greatness 291 all ranks of the brazilian nobility were to be addressed as excelência excellency 291 between 1822 and 1889 986 people were ennobled 296 only three became dukes auguste de beauharnais 2nd duke of leuchtenberg as duke of santa cruz brother in law to pedro i dona isabel maria de alcântara brasileira as duchess of goiás illegitimate daughter of pedro i and lastly luís alves de lima e silva as duke of caxias commander in chief during the paraguayan war 297 the other titles granted were as follows 47 marquises 51 counts 146 viscounts with greatness 89 viscounts without greatness 135 barons with greatness and 740 barons without greatness resulting in a total of 1 211 noble titles 298 there were fewer nobles than noble titles because many were elevated more than once during their lifetime such as the duke of caxias who was first made a baron then a count then a marquis and finally was elevated to a duke 293 grants of nobility were not limited to male brazilians thomas cochrane 10th earl of dundonald a scot was made marquis of maranhão for his role in the brazilian war of independence 299 and 29 women received grants of nobility in their own right 300 as well as being unrestricted by gender no racial distinctions were made in conferring noble status caboclos 301 mulattoes 302 blacks 303 and even indians 303 were ennobled the lesser nobility who were untitled were made up of members of the imperial orders there were six of these the order of christ the order of saint benedict of aviz the order of saint james of the sword the order of the southern cross the order of pedro i and the order of the rose 292 the first three had grades of honor beyond the grand master reserved for the emperor only knight commander and grand cross the latter three however had different ranks the order of the southern cross with four the order of the rose with six and the order of pedro i with three 292 religion edit brazilian friars c 1875 article five of the constitution declared catholicism to be the state religion 304 however the clergy had long been understaffed undisciplined and poorly educated 305 306 all of which led to a general loss of respect for the catholic church 305 during pedro ii s reign the imperial government embarked upon a program of reform designed to address these deficiencies 305 as catholicism was the official religion the emperor exercised a great deal of control over church affairs 305 and paid clerical stipends appointed parish priests nominated bishops ratified papal bulls and supervised seminaries 305 307 in pursuing reform the government selected bishops whose moral fitness stance on education and support for reform met with their approval 305 306 however as more capable men began to fill the clerical ranks resentment of government control over the church increased 305 306 catholic clerics moved closer to the pope and his doctrines this resulted in the religious issue a series of clashes during the 1870s between the clergy and the government since the former wanted a more direct relationship with rome and the latter sought to maintain its oversight of church affairs 308 the constitution did allow followers of other non catholic faiths to practice their religious beliefs albeit only in private the construction of non catholic places of worship was officially forbidden 309 from the outset these restrictions were ignored by both the citizenry and authorities in belém pará s capital the first synagogue was built in 1824 309 jews migrated to brazil soon after its independence and settled mainly in the northeastern provinces of bahia and pernambuco and in the northern provinces of amazonas and pará 309 other jewish groups came from the alsace lorraine region of germany and from russia 310 by the 1880s there were several jewish communities and synagogues scattered throughout brazil 311 the protestants were another group that began settling in brazil at the beginning of the 19th century the first protestants were english and an anglican church was opened in rio de janeiro in 1820 others were established afterwards in são paulo pernambuco and bahia provinces 312 they were followed by german and swiss lutherans who settled in the south and southwest regions and built their own houses of worship 312 following the u s civil war in the 1860s immigrants from the southern united states seeking to escape reconstruction settled in são paulo several american churches sponsored missionary activities including lutherans baptists congregationalists and methodists 313 among african slaves catholicism was the religion of the majority most slaves came originally from the midwestern and southwestern portions of the african coast for over four centuries this region had been the subject of christian mission activities 314 some africans and their descendants however held onto elements of polytheistic religious traditions by merging them with catholicism this resulted in the creation of syncretic creeds such as candomblé 315 islam was also practiced among a small minority of african slaves although it was harshly repressed and by the end of the 19th century had been completely extinguished 316 by the beginning of the 19th century the indians in most of eastern brazil had been either assimilated or decimated some tribes resisted assimilation and either fled farther west where they were able to maintain their diverse polytheistic beliefs or were restricted to aldeamentos reservations where they eventually converted to catholicism 317 culture edit visual arts edit see also brazilian academic art o descanso do modelo the model s rest by almeida júnior 1882 morro da viúva widow s mount by frança júnior c 1888 according to historian ronald raminelli visual arts underwent huge innovations in the empire in comparison to the colonial period 318 with independence in 1822 painting sculpture and architecture were influenced by national symbols and the monarchy as both surpassed religious themes in their importance the previously dominant old baroque style was superseded by neoclassicism 318 new developments appeared such as the use of iron in architecture and the appearance of lithography and photography which revitalized the visual arts 318 the government s creation of the imperial academy of fine arts in the 1820s played a pivotal role in influencing and expanding the visual arts in brazil mainly by educating generations of artists but also by serving as a stylistic guideline 319 the academy s origins lay in the foundation of the escola real das ciências artes e ofícios royal school of the sciences arts and crafts in 1816 by the portuguese king john vi its members of whom the most famous was jean baptiste debret were french émigrées who worked as painters sculptors musicians and engineers 320 the school s main goal was to encourage french aesthetics and the neoclassical style to replace the prevalent baroque style 321 plagued by a lack of funds since its inception the school was later renamed as the academy of fine arts in 1820 and in 1824 received its final name under the empire imperial academy of fine arts 321 it was only following pedro ii s majority in 1840 however that the academy became a powerhouse part of the emperor s greater scheme of fomenting a national culture and consequently uniting all brazilians in a common sense of nationhood 322 pedro ii would sponsor the brazilian culture through several public institutions funded by the government not restricted to the academy of fine arts such as brazilian historic and geographic institute 323 and imperial academy of music and national opera 324 that sponsorship would pave the way not only for the careers of artists but also for those engaged in other fields including historians such as francisco adolfo de varnhagen 325 and musicians such as the operatic composer antônio carlos gom...