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Text of the page (random words):
decade and for of the with take precedence over the letters of later decades for example then is written the n not th en when standing as words adjacent to other such words or to a no space is left between them for example and the for a with the of a are all fused together 13 when printed ch gh sh th are pronounced as two sounds as in shan gh ai hog sh ead and ou th ouse then they are written as two braille letters rather than with the ligatures gh sh th generally other ligatures should not be used if they might cause problems with legibility as with the ing in lingerie though they tend to be with familiar words such as ginger and finger even if their pronunciation is divided between syllables none of the ligatures are to be used across the boundaries of compound words for example of is not used in twofold nor bb in dumbbell the rules state that they should not span a prefix and stem either so for example the ed in deduce the er of rerun and derail and the ble of sublet should be written out in full in practice this is variable as it depends upon the awareness of the writer 14 the of in professor for example might not be recognized spanning prefix and stem and often a cc ept or a dd r e s s are accepted despite the technical violation there is also conflict with the overriding tendency to contract sequences that fall within a single syllable so the same writer who divides the er in derive may allow the ligature in derivation 15 a similar pattern emerges from suffixes ed is not used in freedom since it spans stem and suffix but is used in freed because it forms a single syllable with the stem what is considered to constitute a prefix or suffix is somewhat arbitrary st is not used in charlestown for example but it is in charleston ligatures may also not separate digraphs or diphthongs in print for example aerial does not use er oedipus does not use ed and tableau does not use ble 16 also it is normal to use the letter ea for the broken vowel in i d ea s or c r ea t e despite it being pronounced as two sounds rather than one as in head or ocean ligatures should not be used for acronyms that are pronounced as a string of letters that is dea should not use the letter ea nor pst the letter st such letters are acceptable in acronyms that are pronounced as a word however if the result is not obscure example needed the letters of the fifth decade are often used in the past tense and other grammatical forms when rub becomes rubbed in braille the letter b is moved down a dot to indicate the bb however those letters which double as punctuation marks ea bb cc dd ff gg may only occur sandwiched in the middle of a word not at the beginning or end in order to avoid confusion with the punctuation that is sea ebb add cuff egg must be spelled out in full though the ligatures are used in season added a dd ed cuffs and eggs because of legibility problems see lower contractions in the next section they may not come in contact with an apostrophe or hyphen either that is in egg s and egg plant tea s and tea time the gg and ea must be spelled out in full if the print letters span an obvious affix the braille ligature is not used preamble reanalyze pineapple subbasement but they are used in words such as accept and address where the morphology has become opaque 17 in order to keep the spelling regular compounds of words starting with ea keep the ea spelled out uneasy anteater southeast do not use the ligature ea because easy eater east do not use it 18 these are the least preferred ligatures any other will be used instead thus wedding is w ed d ing not we dd ing and office is of f i c e not o ff i c e many of the rules for when to use ligatures contractions and abbreviations differ when a word is divided at the end of a line of text because some of them may not come in contact with the hyphen that divides the word see the references for details the accent mark printed hereinafter with the character shows that there is a diacritic on the following letter as in se nor señor fa cade façade caf e café na ive naïve and angstr om ångström in normal braille text noting the precise diacritic is not important as it can be easily understood from context or simply ignored where diacritics are critical technical braille transcription must be used a diacritic in a word of foreign origin prevents the accented letter from combining with another into a ligature for example señor is not written with the ligature en as s en o r because it would not be clear if the accent were supposed to be on the e as é or on the n however english words are contracted thus blessèd is written b l e s s ed and coëducational is c o ed u c ation a l punctuation marks edit ebae punctuation symbols space period decimal next letter accented number mode ditto braille punctuation is somewhat variable just as there is variation in printed english between curly and straight quotation marks they fail to make some distinctions found in print for example in ebae both opening and closing parentheses are written with spacing used to distinguish in ueb they are and on the other hand ebae distinguishes period vs decimal point ueb does not ebae and ueb just like non typewriter print distinguish apostrophe right inner quotation mark ditto mark and right outer quotation mark in ebae is the hyphen the dash the double dash and is the ellipsis 19 when words or letters are replaced by multiple dashes or dots in print in ebae and are used with a matching number of characters in ueb these symbols are and 20 in ebae the reference mark or asterisk is used for all reference marks etc including numbered footnotes 21 unlike the asterisk in printed english it is spaced on both sides apart from associated footnote letters or numbers which follow it immediately so word is transcribed as is word the numbered footnote in word 3 is written in ueb they are distinguished matching print 22 the ditto mark which occupies two cells is only used once per line in contrast to normal practice in print in addition to being used for apostrophe and capitalization dot 3 and dot 6 are used as combining characters in ebae they combine with parentheses to form brackets and in ebae ueb dot 6 combines with quotation marks to form inner quotation marks together they form the termination sign ending an all caps passage also the section mark ueb the accent mark here called the print symbol indicator is used with punctuation when it stands alone rather than suffixed to a word or number for example if someone s response in a dialogue is transcribed in braille that would be written it is also used to derive a few symbols in ebae before a number elsewhere in ueb became and became everywhere in ebae in general literature the common mathematical signs of operation for plus minus times or by divided by and equals should always be expressed in words the special mathematical signs should be used only in mathematics and scientific texts 23 for example 2 5 ft would be rendered using as a contraction of the word by in literary contexts because ebae did not have a symbol for though nemeth braille did in ueb is so that phrase would be rendered formatting marks edit braille has several formatting marks sometimes called composition signs register marks or indicators which have no one to one correspondence with printed english these are the number sign the letter sign the capital sign the italic sign or more accurately the emphasis sign and the termination sign written cap apostrophe these immediately precede the sequence word or number they modify without an intervening space number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 decimal all characters a through j are interpreted as the digits 1 through 0 when they follow a number sign this reading ignores intervening numerical and arithmetical symbols such as commas decimal points and fraction bars until a non number compatible character such as a period or a letter after j is encountered at which point reading reverts to the alphabetical values a j the number sign is repeated after a slash that is not used as a fraction bar like model number 15 07 24 for example 1 20 one twentieth is but 20 20 vision is the braille number sign has no equivalent in print it is sometimes transcribed as however this is misleading an actual printed is rendered in braille as no without an intervening space before the number sign letter emph caps stop termination non latin the letter sign is used to force the end of a series of numbers for example da preceded by a number sign is read as 41 if instead 4a is intended as in a section or apartment number then the letter sign is used to force a reading of a rather than 1 for the final character 4a 25 it is also used to mark a character as standing for a letter rather than for a word for example b on its own is normally read as the word but to indicate that it is instead the letter b the letter sign is used b plurals of letters mind your ps and qs always use an apostrophe in braille but other derivations may not as in nth time is sing is s ing essing 26 the letter sign is also used to mark lower case roman numbers as in iii the capital ization sign marks the first letter of a word as capitalized it may occur in the middle of a word for camel case as in the name deangelo it is doubled to place a word in all caps this must be repeated for each word of an all cap text 27 the emphasis italic sign marks emphatic formatting equivalent to printed italic bold underlined and small capital text 28 a single italic sign emphasizes the entire word or number for two or three emphasized words each takes a separate marker for longer texts a doubled marker is placed before the first word and the end of the emphasis is indicated by marking the final emphasized word with a single italic sign when the capitalization or emphasis does not span the entire word the beginning and end is marked with a hyphen however if the print word already contains a hyphen the termination sign is used for the end so hoo ray is written but hoo ray is the comma prefixed to a letter indicates that it is to be read as non latin so that for example would be α if greek symbols were being used 29 contractions edit apart from words using the various abbreviations signs covered in the next section english braille utilizes a number of unmarked contractions 30 these are similar to the contractions found in shorthand and stenoscript as a rule they are not used where they would obscure the text one letter contractions edit a b ut c an d o e very f rom self g o h ave i j ust k nowledge l ike m ore n ot p eople q uite r ather s o t hat st ill u s v ery it y ou as com ch ild sh all th is wh ich ou t w ill be be con dis en ough to were his in by was into abolished in unified english braille joins with the following word note irregular x for it z for as and gg for were all 26 basic latin letters are used apart from a i o which already form words of their own these contractions are either independent words or in the cases of con com dis self affixes as in one f oneself they cannot be treated as simple letters for example while the letter x stands for the pronoun it it cannot substitute for the sequence it in the word bite 31 they cannot be pluralized cs is no good for tin cans this is true even of ch child not being usable for grandchild nor ou out in without these must be spelled g r and ch i l d and with ou t however a following apostrophe is acceptable p s people s c t can t x ll it ll 32 as are hyphenated words like so and so this behavior is distinct from ligatures such as ed and the which are used when the equivalent sequences are found in printed english as in red and need there is no semantic restriction c can may be either the verb can or a tin can and capitalized w and m are names will and more 33 however in the few cases where the basic letters would be words in their own right they must be spelled out to avoid confusion that is because sh stands for shall it cannot be used for the word sh which must be spelled out as s h similarly st can be used for st as either saint or street when marked as an abbreviation by a period but otherwise should also be spelled out 34 lower contractions because contractions that occupy only the lower half of the braille cell mostly double as basic punctuation marks legibility requires that with few exceptions they may not come in contact with actual punctuation marks if they would they should instead be spelled out that is any cell which follows without an intervening space should contain a dot in its top row most of the difficulties of when to use contractions are due to this complication the whole word contractions of the fifth decade are bb be en enough ff to gg were his in in by was 35 if one of these words occurs at the end of a sentence or before a comma it must be spelled out though enough would still be partially contracted to en ou gh they cannot even be used in hyphenated words such as bride to be however much like arabic prepositions the prepositions to into 36 and by join with a following word without an intervening space this prevents by from being read as was that is in he came by to see us by to see is written as one word word joining is allowed as long as the upper half of the braille cell dot 1 or 4 is used in the final word to by into do join with in enough be his was were but the second word is spelled out the fifth decade prefixes be dis con may only be used if they occur at the beginning of a word including in a compound word after a hyphen or after by to into and form a whole syllable that is they cannot be used in the words been disk conch nor apart from double duty be as words in their own right as in con artist com is similar but does not need to constitute a syllable it is used for example in come and comb however because it uses only the bottom row of the cell like the hyphen and the apostrophe it cannot come in contact with either longer contractions edit longer unmarked contractions are the following ligatures such as st in agst against are underlined here for clarity 37 ab about abv above ac according acr across af after afn afternoon afw afterward ag again ag st against al also alm almost alr already alt altogether al th although alw always be c because be f before be h behind be l below be n beneath be s beside be t between be y beyond bl blind brl braille cd could cv ceive cvg ceiving 38 ch n children dcl declare dclg declaring ei either f st first fr friend gd good grt great h er f herself hm him hmf himself imm immediate ll little lr letter m ch much m st must myf myself nec necessary nei neither o c o clock 39 ou rvs ourselves pd paid p er h perhaps qk quick rjc rejoice rjcg rejoicing s ch such sd said sh d should td today tgr together tm tomorrow tn tonight the mvs themselves wd would xs its xf itself yr your yrf yourself yrvs yourselves these can only form longer words that are derivations of them and retain their meaning for example above in aboveboard necessary in unnecessary...