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l as the mass removal of slowly renewable resources such as aquatic life forests and crops 110 legally the state owns natural resources but is able to grant concessions to industry through the form of taxes paid in recent decades a shift towards refocusing these tax dollars accumulated on the communities most impacted by the health social and economic impacts of extractivism has taken place however many indigenous and rural community leaders argue that they ought to consent to companies extracting and polluting their resources rather than be paid reparations after the fact citation needed united states edit main article environmental racism in the united states kamala harris speaking about environmental justice in june 2020 a us government accountability office study completed in response to the 1982 protests of the pcb landfill in warren county was among the first studies that drew correlations between the racial and economic background of communities and the location of hazardous waste facilities nevertheless the study was limited in scope by focusing only on off site hazardous waste landfills in the southeastern united states 111 in response to this limitation in 1987 the united church of christ commission for racial justice crj directed a comprehensive national study on demographic patterns associated with the location of hazardous waste sites 111 the crj national study conducted two examinations of areas surrounding commercial hazardous waste facilities and the location of uncontrolled toxic waste sites 111 the first study examined the association between race and socio economic status and the location of commercial hazardous waste treatment storage and disposal facilities 111 after statistical analysis the first study concluded that the percentage of community residents that belonged to a racial or ethnic group was a stronger predictor of the level of commercial hazardous waste activity than was household income the value of the homes the number of uncontrolled waste sites or the estimated amount of hazardous wastes generated by industry 112 a second study examined the presence of uncontrolled toxic waste sites in ethnic and racial minority communities and found that three of every five african and hispanic americans lived in communities with uncontrolled waste sites 113 a separate 1991 study found race to be the most influential variable in predicting where waste facilities were located 114 in 1994 president bill clinton s issued executive order 12898 which directed agencies to develop a strategy to manage environmental justice 115 116 in 2002 faber and krieg found a correlation between higher air pollution exposure and low performance in schools and found that 92 of children at five los angeles public schools with the poorest air quality were of a minority background 117 118 disproportionate to los angeles then 70 minority population as a result of the placement of hazardous waste facilities minority populations experience greater exposure to harmful chemicals and suffer from health outcomes that affect their ability at work and in schools a comprehensive study of particulate emissions across the united states published in 2018 found that black people were exposed to 54 more particulate matter emissions soot than the average american 119 120 in a study that analyzed exposure to air pollution from vehicles in the american mid atlantic and american north east it was found that african americans were exposed to 61 more particulate matter than whites with latinos exposed to 75 more and asians exposed to 73 more overall minorities experienced 66 more pollution exposure from particulate matter than the white population 121 similar patterns of environmental injustice have been observed with urban heat a 2023 study found that historically redlined and low income black neighborhoods are disproportionately exposed to extreme heat and that these hotter areas also tend to experience elevated violent crime rates highlighting how environmental and social stressors often compound in structurally disadvantaged communities 122 people on the roofs of their houses avoiding the flood after hurricane katrina carl zimring states that environmental racism is often engrained in day to day work and living conditions 123 examples cited of environmental racism in the us include the dakota access pipeline where a portion of the proposed 1 172 mile pipeline would pass near to the standing rock indian reservation the flint water crisis which affected a town that was 55 african american cancer alley louisiana 124 as well as the government response to hurricane katrina where a mandatory evacuation was not ordered in the majority black city of new orleans until 20 hours before hurricane katrina made landfall 125 126 127 overall the us has worked to reduce environmental racism with municipality changes 128 these policies help develop further change some cities and counties have taken advantage of environmental justice policies and applied it to the public health sector 128 native american peoples edit see also indian removal and uranium mining and the navajo people photograph from 1892 of a pile of american bison skulls in detroit michigan waiting to be ground for fertilizer or charcoal the united states army encouraged massive hunts of american bison to force native americans off their traditional lands and into reservations farther west that is considered an early example of environmental racism native scholars have discussed whether the concept of environmental justice make sense in the context of native americans and settler colonialism this is because native americans legal status differs from other marginalized peoples in the united states as such colville scholar dina gilio whitaker explains that because indigenous peoples relationships to the state i e the united states are different than those of ethnic minorities environmental justice must exceed equality and be able to live up to the concepts of tribal sovereignty treaty rights and government to government relationships 129 gilio whitaker further argues that the distributive justice model on which environmental racism is based is not helpful to native communities frameworks for ej in non native communities that rely on distributive justice are built on capitalistic american values of land as commodity i e private property on lands that were expropriated from native peoples in contrast native peoples have very different relationships to land beyond the modes of land as commodity 129 130 indigenous studies scholars have argued that environmental racism however began in the united states with the arrival of settler colonialism potawatomi philosopher kyle powys whyte and lower brule sioux historian nick estes explain that native peoples have already lived through one environmental apocalypse the coming of colonialism 131 132 métis geographer zoe todd and academic heather davis have also argued that settler colonialism is responsible for contemporary environmental crisis 133 in that way it has been shown that climate change has been weaponized against indigenous american peoples as founding fathers such as thomas jefferson and benjamin franklin deforested the americas and welcomed warmer weather which they thought would displace native peoples and enrich the united states thus the united states from its birth played a key role in causing catastrophic environmental change 134 whyte explains further that anthropogenic human caused climate change is an intensification of environmental change imposed on indigenous peoples by colonialism 135 anishinaabe scholar leanne betasamosake simpson has also argued we should be thinking of climate change as part of a much longer series of ecological catastrophes caused by colonialism and accumulation based society 136 the indian removal act of 1830 and the trail of tears may also be considered early examples of environmental racism in the united states as a result of the former by 1850 all tribes east of the mississippi had been removed to western lands and essentially confined them to lands that were too dry remote or barren to attract the attention of settlers and corporations 137 during world war ii military facilities were often located conterminous to indian reservations which led to a situation in which a disproportionate number of the most dangerous military facilities are located near native american lands 138 a study analyzing the approximately 3 100 counties in the continental united states found that native american lands are positively associated with the count of sites with unexploded ordnance deemed extremely dangerous the study also found that the risk assessment code rac which is used to measure dangerousness of sites with unexploded ordnance can sometimes conceal how much of a threat these sites are to native americans the hazard probability or probability that a hazard will harm people or ecosystems is sensitive to the proximity of public buildings such as schools and hospitals those parameters neglect elements of tribal life such as subsistence consumption ceremonial use of plants and animals and low population densities because those tribal unique factors are not considered native american lands can often receive low risk scores despite threats to their way of life the hazard probability does not take native americans into account when considering the people or ecosystems that could be harmed locating military facilities coterminous to reservations lead to a situation in which a disproportionate number of the most dangerous military facilities are located near native american lands 137 more recently native american lands have been used for waste disposal and illegal dumping by the us and multinational corporations 139 140 the international tribunal of indigenous people and oppressed nations convened in 1992 to examine the history of criminal activity against indigenous groups in the united states 141 and published a significant bill of particulars outlining grievances indigenous peoples had with the us this included allegations that the us deliberately and systematically permitted aided and abetted solicited and conspired to commit the dumping transportation and location of nuclear toxic medical and otherwise hazardous waste materials on native american territories in north america and has thus created a clear and present danger to the health safety and physical and mental well being of native american people 141 oceania edit australia edit the australian environmental justice aej is a multidisciplinary organization which is closely partnered with friends of the earth australia foea the aej focuses on recording and remedying the effects of environmental injustice throughout australia the aej has addressed issues which include production and spread of toxic wastes pollution of water soil and air erosion and ecological damage of landscapes water systems plants and animals 142 the project looks for environmental injustices that disproportionately affect a group of people or impact them in a way they did not agree to the western oil refinery started operating in bellevue western australia in 1954 it was permitted rights to operate in bellevue by the australian government to refine cheap and localized oil in the decades following many residents of bellevue claimed they felt respiratory burning due to the inhalation of toxic chemicals and nauseating fumes lee bell from curtin university and mariann lloyd smith from the national toxic network in australia stated in their article toxic disputes and the rise of environmental justice in australia that residents living close to the site discovered chemical contamination in the ground water surfacing in their back yards 143 under immense civilian pressure the western oil refinery now named omex stopped refining oil in 1979 years later citizens of bellevue formed the bellevue action group bag and called for the government to give aid towards the remediation of the site the government agreed and 6 9 million was allocated to clean up the site remediation of site began in april 2000 micronesia edit see also nuclear testing at bikini atoll papua new guinea edit panguna copper mine under construction 1971 starting production in 1972 the panguna mine in papua new guinea has been a source of environmental racism although closed since 1989 due to conflict on the island the indigenous peoples bougainvillean have suffered both economically and environmentally from the creation of the mine terrance wesley smith and eugene ogan university of hawaii and university of minnesota respectively stated that the bougainvillean s were grossly disadvantaged from the beginning and no subsequent renegotiation has been able to remedy the situation 144 these indigenous people faced issues such as losing land which could have been used for agricultural practices for the dapera and moroni villages undervalued payment for the land poor relocation housing for displaced villagers and significant environmental degradation in the surrounding areas 145 polynesia edit see also french nuclear testing in the south pacific south america edit the andes edit extracitivism or the process of humans removing natural raw resources from land to be used in product manufacturing can have detrimental environmental and social repercussions research analyzing environmental conflicts in four andean countries colombia ecuador peru and bolivia found that conflicts tend to disproportionately affect indigenous populations and those with afro descent and peasant communities 146 these conflicts can arise as a result of shifting economic patterns land use policies and social practices due to extractivist industries chile edit this section does not cite any sources please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed september 2026 learn how and when to remove this message beginning in the late 15th century when european explorers began sailing to the new world the violence towards and oppression of indigenous populations have had lasting effects to this day the mapuche chilean land conflict has roots dating back several centuries when the spanish went to conquer parts of south america the mapuche were one of the only indigenous groups to successfully resist spanish domination and maintain their sovereignty moving forward relations between the mapuche and the chilean state declined into a condition of malice and resentment chile won its independence from spain in 1818 and wanting the mapuche to assimilate into the chilean state began crafting harmful legislation that targeted the mapuche the mapuche have based their economy both historically and presently on agriculture by the mid 19th century the state resorted to outright seizure of mapuche lands forcefully appropriating all but 5 of mapuche lineal lands an agrarian economy without land essentially meant that the mapuche no lon...