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ers with how a dog looks and sounds will make up the semantic representation of that word all episodic memories concerning a dog will then reference this single semantic representation of dog and likewise all new experiences with the dog will modify the single semantic representation of that dog together semantic and episodic memory make up our declarative memory 15 they each represent different parts of context to form a complete picture as such something that affects episodic memory can also affect semantic memory for example anterograde amnesia from damage of the medial temporal lobe is an impairment of declarative memory that affects both episodic and semantic memory operations 16 originally tulving proposed that episodic and semantic memory were separate systems that competed with each other in retrieval however this theory was rejected when howard and kahana completed experiments on latent semantic analysis lsa that supported the opposite instead of an increase in semantic similarity when there was a decrease in the strength of temporal associations the two worked together so semantic cues on retrieval were strongest when episodic cues were strong as well 17 age differences edit further information memory and aging episodic memory emerges at approximately 3 to 4 years of age 18 activation of specific brain areas mostly the hippocampus seems to be different between younger aged 23 39 and older people aged 67 80 upon episodic memory retrieval 19 older people tend to activate both their left and right hippocampus while younger people activate only the left one relationship to emotion edit the relationship between emotion and memory is complex but generally emotion tends to increase the likelihood that an event will be remembered later and that it will be remembered vividly flashbulb memory is one example of this flashbulb memory is event specific which consists of depictions of personal experiences for example saying i remember seeing grandma smile when i gave her the present or remembering the detailed events of the tragedy of 9 11 this idea of flashbulb memory was proposed by r brown and kulik 1977 in which they stated that this idea revolves around remembering an event or unexpected circumstance due to emotional arousal they referred to this memory as photographic vividness however whether the vividness of the flashbulb memory is due to a virtual flash that occurs because of the emotional experience has been hotly contested flashbulb memories may occur because of our propensity to rehearse and retell those highly emotional events which strengthens the memory r brown and kulik represented that these memories contain information that falls under the categories place ongoing activity informant own affect and aftermath flashbulb memory is usually perceived as highly accurate and consistent over time and are presented with great confidence even if sometimes they are inaccurate authors brown kulik and conway argued that these special memories involve the limbic system specifically the amygdala there is an abundancy of research that shows the amygdala involvement regarding retrieval of emotional memories for example research using brain imaging techniques pharmacological enhancement edit in healthy adults longterm visual episodic memory can be enhanced specifically 20 through administration of the acetylcholine esterase inhibitor donepezil whereas verbal episodic memory can be improved in persons with the val val genotype of the val158met polymorphism through administration of the cns penetrant specific catecholamine o methyltransferase inhibitor tolcapone 21 furthermore episodic memory is enhanced through azd3480 a selective agonist at the neuronal alpha4beta2 nicotinic receptor which is developed by the company targacept 22 currently there are several other products developed by several companies including new catecholamine o methyltransferase inhibitors with fewer side effects that aim for improving episodic memory a recent placebo controlled study found that dhea which is a functional cortisol antagonist improves episodic memory in healthy young men alhaj et al 2006 23 a 2015 meta analysis of high quality evidence found that therapeutic doses of amphetamine and methylphenidate improve performance on working memory episodic memory and inhibitory control tests in normal healthy adults 24 damage edit based on a review of behavioral studies it is suggested that there may be selective damage to the limbic prefrontal episodic memory system in some autistic people 25 another study exhibited evidence of autistic deficits in the episodic or self conscious memory of personally experienced events 26 the label amnesia is most often given to patients with deficits in episodic memory alzheimer s disease tends to damage the entorhinal cortex and the hippocampus before other brain areas and this leads to episodic memory loss 27 a rare type of shellfish poisoning called amnesic shellfish poisoning or asp quite effectively and irreversibly damages the hippocampus rendering one amnesic korsakoff s syndrome is caused by thiamine vitamin b 1 deficiency a form of malnutrition which can be precipitated by overconsumption of alcohol compared to foods an acute cortisol level by injection has been found to significantly inhibit the recall of autobiographical memories 28 which may contribute to memory deficits found in depression 29 the use of mdma ecstasy has been associated with persistent deficits in episodic memory 30 31 in animals edit main article episodic like memory tulving 1983 proposed that to meet the criteria of episodic memory evidence of conscious recollection must be provided demonstrating episodic memory in the absence of language and thus in non human animals has been declared impossible as long as there are no agreed upon non linguistic behavioral indicators of conscious experience griffiths et al 1999 this idea was first challenged by clayton and dickinson in their work with the western scrub jay aphelocoma californica they were able to demonstrate that these birds may possess an episodic like memory system as they found that they remember where they cached different food types and discriminately recovered them depending on the perishability of the item and time that elapsed since caching thus scrub jays appear to remember the what where and when of specific past caching events the authors argued that such performance meets the behavioral criteria for episodic memory but referred to the ability as episodic like memory because the study did not address the phenomenological aspects of episodic memory according to a study conducted by the university of edinburgh 2006 hummingbirds were the first animal to demonstrate two of the aspects of episodic memory the ability to recall where certain flowers were located and how recently they were visited other studies have examined this type of memory in different animal species such as dogs 32 33 rats honey bees and primates the ability of animals to encode and retrieve past experiences relies on the circuitry of the medial temporal lobe a structure including the hippocampus 34 animal lesion studies have provided significant findings related to the importance of particular brain structures in episodic like memory for example hippocampal lesions have severely impacted all three components what where and when in animals suggesting that the hippocampus is responsible for detecting novel events stimuli and places when forming new memories and retrieving that information later on despite similar neural areas and evidence from experiments some scholars remain cautious about comparisons to human episodic memory 35 purported episodic like memory often seems fixed to a particular domain or could be explained in terms of procedural or semantic memory the problem may be better tractable by studying episodic memory s adaptive counterpart the capacity to flexibly imagine future events however a recent experiment addressed one of suddendorf and busby 2003 s specific criticisms the bischof köhler hypothesis which states that nonhuman animals can only take actions based on immediate needs as opposed to future needs correia and colleagues demonstrated 36 that western scrub jays can selectively cache different types of foods depending on which type of food they will desire at a future time offering strong evidence against the bischof köhler hypothesis by demonstrating that scrub jays can flexibly adjust their behavior based on past experience of desiring a particular food similarities and differences between humans and other animals are currently much debated 37 autobiographical memory edit an autobiographical memory is a personal representation of general or specific events and personal facts additionally it also refers to the memory of a person s history an individual does not remember exactly everything that has happened in one s past memory is constructive where previous experience affects how we remember events and what we end up recalling from memory similarly autobiographical memory is constructive and reconstructed as an evolving process of history a person s autobiographical memory is fairly reliable although the reliability of autobiographical memories is questionable because of memory distortions 38 autobiographical memories can differ for special periods of life for instance people recall a few personal events from the first years of their lives the loss of these first events is called childhood or infantile amnesia also people tend to recall many personal events from adolescence and early adulthood this effect is called the reminiscence bump additionally people recall many personal events from their previous few years for adolescents and young adults the reminiscence bump and the recent events can coincide 39 it is known that autobiographical memories initially are stored as episodic memories but it is currently unknown if autobiographical memories are the same as episodic memories or if the autobiographical memories become converted to semantic memories with time 40 types edit specific events when you first set foot in the ocean general events what it feels like stepping into the ocean in general this is a memory of what a personal event is generally like it might be based on the memories of having stepped in the ocean many times during the years flashbulb memories flashbulb memories are critical autobiographical memories about a major event neural network models edit this section needs expansion you can help by adding missing information april 2012 episodic memories can be stored in autoassociative neural networks e g a hopfield network if the stored representation includes information on the spatiotemporal context in which an item was studied smaller memories such as words or references said by someone are labeled as inactive or active neurons in the entorhinal cortex 41 42 neural networks help us understand how the brain sends and receives different messages to the body and how they are connected these networks are a group of neurons or structures that are connected together these structures work harmoniously to produce different cognitions within the brain one of the largest proposals for this ideology is that of diffusion tensor imaging 43 this technique traces the differing pathways of nerve fibres that further create communication throughout differing structures these networks can be thought of as neural maps that can expand or contract according to the information being processed at that time neural network models can undergo learning patterns to use episodic memories to predict certain moments neural network models help the episodic memories by capturing the naturalistic state you are currently in such as scenery rooms time smell or even your current feeling 44 45 see also edit bipolar disorder borderline personality disorder rapid cycling references edit schacter dl gilbert dt wegner dm 2009 semantic 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gross j colombo m hayne h march 201...