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Text of the page (random words):
udness contours for the human ear determined experimentally by harvey fletcher and wilden a munson and reported in a 1933 paper entitled loudness its definition measurement and calculation in the journal of the acoustical society of america 2 fletcher munson curves have been superseded and incorporated into newer standards the definitive modern curves are those defined in iso 226 from the international organization for standardization which are based on a review of modern determinations made in various countries fletcher munson curves edit the first research on the topic of how the ear hears different frequencies at different levels was conducted by fletcher and munson in 1933 until recently it was common to see the term fletcher munson used to refer to equal loudness contours generally even though a re determination was carried out by robinson and dadson in 1956 which became the basis for an iso 226 standard the generic term equal loudness contours is now preferred of which the fletcher munson curves are now a sub set 3 and especially since a 2003 survey by iso redefined the curves in a new standard 4 experimental determination edit the human auditory system is sensitive to frequencies from about 20 hz to a maximum of around 20 000 hz although the upper hearing limit decreases with age within this range the human ear is most sensitive between 2 and 5 khz largely due to the resonance of the ear canal and the transfer function of the ossicles of the middle ear fletcher and munson first measured equal loudness contours using headphones 1933 in their study test subjects listened to pure tones at various frequencies and over 10 db increments in stimulus intensity for each frequency and intensity the listener also listened to a reference tone at 1000 hz fletcher and munson adjusted the reference tone until the listener perceived that it had the same loudness as the test tone loudness being a psychological quantity is difficult to measure so fletcher and munson averaged their results over many test subjects to derive reasonable averages the lowest equal loudness contour represents the quietest audible tone the absolute threshold of hearing the highest contour is the threshold of pain churcher and king carried out a second determination in 1937 but their results and fletcher and munson s showed considerable discrepancies over parts of the auditory diagram 5 in 1956 robinson and dadson produced a new experimental determination that they believed was more accurate it became the basis for a standard iso 226 that was considered definitive until 2003 when iso revised the standard on the basis of recent assessments by research groups worldwide recent revision aimed at more precise determination iso 226 2003 edit perceived discrepancies between early and more recent determinations led the international organization for standardization iso to revise the standard curves in iso 226 they did this in response to recommendations in a study coordinated by the research institute of electrical communication tohoku university japan the study produced new curves by combining the results of several studies by researchers in japan germany denmark uk and the us japan was the greatest contributor with about 40 of the data this has resulted in the recent acceptance of a new set of curves standardized as iso 226 2003 the report comments on the surprisingly large differences and the fact that the original fletcher munson contours are in better agreement with recent results than the robinson dadson which appear to differ by as much as 10 15 db especially in the low frequency region for reasons not explained 6 according to the iso report the robinson dadson results were the odd one out differing more from the current standard than did the fletcher munson curves the report states that it is fortunate that the 40 phon fletcher munson curve on which the a weighting standard was based turns out to have been in agreement with modern determinations 4 the report also comments on the large differences apparent in the low frequency region which remain unexplained possible explanations are 4 the equipment used was not properly calibrated the criteria used for judging equal loudness at different frequencies had differed subjects were not properly rested for days in advance or were exposed to loud noise in traveling to the tests which tensed the tensor tympani and stapedius muscles controlling low frequency mechanical coupling side versus frontal presentation edit this section does not cite any sources please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed december 2020 learn how and when to remove this message real life sounds from a reasonably distant source arrive as planar wavefronts if the source of sound is directly in front of the listener then both ears receive equal intensity but at frequencies above about 1 khz the sound that enters the ear canal is partially reduced by the head shadow and also highly dependent on reflection off the pinna outer ear off centre sounds result in increased head masking at one ear and subtle changes in the effect of the pinna especially at the other ear this combined effect of head masking and pinna reflection is quantified in a set of curves in three dimensional space referred to as head related transfer functions hrtfs frontal presentation is now regarded as preferable when deriving equal loudness contours and the latest iso standard is specifically based on frontal and central presentation because no hrtf is involved in normal headphone listening equal loudness curves derived using headphones are valid only for the special case of what is called side presentation which is not how we normally hear the robinson dadson determination used loudspeakers and for a long time the difference from the fletcher munson curves was explained partly on the basis that the latter used headphones however the iso report actually lists the latter as using compensated headphones though it doesn t make clear how robinson dadson achieved compensation headphones versus loudspeaker testing edit this section does not cite any sources please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed october 2015 learn how and when to remove this message good headphones well sealed to the ear provide a flat low frequency pressure response to the ear canal with low distortion even at high intensities at low frequencies the ear is purely pressure sensitive and the cavity formed between headphones and ear is too small to introduce modifying resonances headphone testing is therefore a good way to derive equal loudness contours below about 500 hz though reservations have been expressed about the validity of headphone measurements when determining the actual threshold of hearing based on the observation that closing off the ear canal produces increased sensitivity to the sound of blood flow within the ear which the brain appears to mask in normal listening conditions citation needed at high frequencies headphone measurement becomes unreliable and the various resonances of pinnae outer ears and ear canals are severely affected by proximity to the headphone cavity with speakers the opposite is true a flat low frequency response is hard to obtain except in free space high above ground or in a very large and anechoic chamber that is free from reflections down to 20 hz until recently when it was not possible to achieve high levels at frequencies down to 20 hz without high levels of harmonic distortion even today the best speakers are likely to generate around 1 to 3 of total harmonic distortion corresponding to 30 to 40 db below fundamental this is not good enough given the steep rise in loudness rising to as much as 24 db per octave with frequency revealed by the equal loudness curves below about 100 hz a good experimenter must ensure that trial subjects really hear the fundamental and not harmonics especially the third harmonic which is especially strong as a speaker cone s travel becomes limited as its suspension reaches the limit of compliance a possible way around the problem is to use acoustic filtering such as by resonant cavity in the speaker setup a flat free field high frequency response up to 20 khz on the other hand is comparatively easy to achieve with modern speakers on axis these effects must be considered when comparing results of various attempts to measure equal loudness contours relevance to sound level and noise measurements edit the a weighting curve in widespread use for noise measurement is said to have been based on the 40 phon fletcher munson curve however research in the 1960s demonstrated that determinations of equal loudness made using pure tones are not directly relevant to our perception of noise 7 this is because the cochlea in our inner ear analyzes sounds in terms of spectral content each hair cell responding to a narrow band of frequencies known as a critical band the high frequency bands are wider in absolute terms than the low frequency bands and therefore collect proportionately more power from a noise source however when more than one critical band is stimulated the signals to the brain add the various bands to produce the impression of loudness for these reasons equal loudness curves derived using noise bands show an upwards tilt above 1 khz and a downward tilt below 1 khz when compared to the curves derived using pure tones various weighting curves were derived in the 1960s in particular as part of the din 4550 standard for audio quality measurement which differed from the a weighting curve showing more of a peak around 6 khz these gave a more meaningful subjective measure of noise on audio equipment especially on the newly invented compact cassette tape recorders with dolby noise reduction which were characterized by a noise spectrum dominated by the higher frequencies bbc research conducted listening trials in an attempt to find the best weighting curve and rectifier combination for use when measuring noise in broadcast equipment examining the various new weighting curves in the context of noise rather than tones confirming that they were much more valid than a weighting when attempting to measure the subjective loudness of noise this work also investigated the response of human hearing to tone bursts clicks pink noise and a variety of other sounds that because of their brief impulsive nature do not give the ear and brain sufficient time to respond the results were reported in bbc research report el 17 1968 8 entitled the assessment of noise in audio frequency circuits the itu r 468 noise weighting curve originally proposed in ccir recommendation 468 but later adopted by numerous standards bodies iec bsi jis itu was based on the research and incorporates a special quasi peak detector to account for our reduced sensitivity to short bursts and clicks 8 it is widely used by broadcasters and audio professionals when they measure noise on broadcast paths and audio equipment so they can subjectively compare equipment types with different noise spectra and characteristics see also edit a weighting audio quality measurement audiogram db a listener fatigue loudness compensation luminosity function the same concept in vision mel scale pure tone audiometry robinson dadson curves sound level meter weighting filter notes edit suzuki yôiti takeshima hisashi 2004 equal loudness level contours for pure tones the journal of the acoustical society of america 116 2 918 933 bibcode 2004asaj 116 918s doi 10 1121 1 1763601 issn 0001 4966 pmid 15376658 s2cid 15865914 fletcher h and munson w a loudness its definition measurement and calculation journal of the acoustical society of america 5 82 108 1933 fletcher munson curve the equal loudness contour of human hearing ledger note 16 november 2017 retrieved november 17 2017 1 2 3 iso 226 2003 pdf archived from the original pdf on september 27 2007 d w robinson et al a re determination of the equal loudness relations for pure tones br j appl phys 7 1956 pp 166 181 yôiti suzuki et al precise and full range determination of two dimensional equal loudness contours archived 2007 09 27 at the wayback machine bauer b torick e researches in loudness measurement ieee transactions on audio and electroacoustics vol 14 3 sep 1966 pp 141 151 ken ichiro masaoka kazuho ono and setsu komiyama a measurement of equal loudness level contours for tone burst acoustical science and technology vol 22 2001 no 1 pp 35 39 references edit audio engineer s reference book 2nd ed 1999 edited michael talbot smith focal press an introduction to the psychology of hearing 5th ed brian c j moore elsevier press external links edit iso standard precise and full range determination of two dimensional equal loudness contours fletcher munson is not robinson dadson pdf full revision of international standards for equal loudness level contours iso 226 test your hearing a tool for measuring your equal loudness contours equal loudness contour measurements in detail evaluation of loudness level weightings and llsel jasa a model of loudness applicable to time varying sounds aesj article v t e international organization for standardization iso standards list of iso standards iso romanizations iec standards 1 9999 1 2 3 4 6 7 9 16 17 31 0 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 68 1 128 216 217 226 228 233 259 261 262 302 306 361 500 518 519 639 1 2 3 5 6 646 657 668 690 704 732 764 838 843 860 898 965 999 1000 1004 1007 1073 1 1073 2 1155 1413 1538 1629 1745 1989 2014 2015 2022 2033 2047 2108 2145 2146 2240 2281 2533 2709 2711 2720 2788 2848 2852 2921 3029 3103 3166 1 2 3 3297 3307 3601 3602 3864 3901 3950 3977 4031 4157 4165 4217 4909 5127 5218 5426 5427 5428 5725 5775 5776 5800 5807 5964 6166 6344 6346 6373 6385 6425 6429 6438 6523 6709 6862 6943 7001 7002 7010 7027 7064 7098 7185 7200 7498 1 7637 7736 7810 7811 7812 7813 7816 7942 8000 8093 8178 8217 8373 8501 1 8571 8583 8601 8613 8632 8651 8652 8691 8802 5 8805 8806 8807 8820 5 8859 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 i 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 8879 9000 9001 9036 9075 9126 9141 9227 9241 9293 9314 9362 9407 9496 9506 9529 9564 9592 9593 9594 9660 9797 1 9897 9899 9945 9984 9985 9995 10000 19999 10006 10007 10116 10118 3 10160 10161 10165 10179 10206 10218 10279 10303 11 21 22 28 238 10367 10383 10585 10589 10628 10646 10664 10746 10861 10957 10962 10967 11073 11170 11172 11179 11404 11544 11783 11784 11785 11801 11889 11898 11940 2 11941 11941 tr 11992 12006 12052 12182 12207 12234 2 12620 12944 13211 1 2 13216 13250 13399 13406 2 13450 13485 13490 13567 13568 13584 13616 13816 13818 13849 14000 14006 14031 14051 14223 14224 14289 14396 14443 14496 2 3 6 10 11 12 14 17 20 14555 14617 14644 14649 14651 14698 14755 14764 14882 14971 15022 15118 15189 15288 15291 15398 15408 15444 3 9 15445 15438 15489 15504 15511 15686 15693 15706 2 15707 15897 15919 15924 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