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hrough loose interpretations and paraphrasing researchers take near fictions and turn them into claims of fact the closest ethnographers can ever really get to reality is an approximate truth citation needed the observant ethnographer readers of ethnography are often led to assume the report of a scene is complete that little of importance was missed in reality an ethnographer will always miss some aspect because of lacking omniscience everything is open to multiple interpretations and misunderstandings as ethnographers skills in observation and collection of data vary by individual what is depicted in ethnography can never be the whole picture the unobtrusive ethnographer as a participant in the scene the researcher will always have an effect on the communication that occurs within the research site the degree to which one is an active member affects the extent to which sympathetic understanding is possible 71 ethnographic self edit the following are commonly misconceived conceptions of ethnographers 72 the candid ethnographer where the researcher personally situates within the ethnography is ethically problematic there is an illusion that everything reported was observed by the researcher the chaste ethnographer when ethnographers participate within the field they invariably develop relationships with research subjects participants these relationships are sometimes not accounted for within the reporting of the ethnography although they may influence the research findings the fair ethnographer fine claims that objectivity is an illusion and that everything in ethnography is known from a perspective therefore it is unethical for a researcher to report fairness in findings the literary ethnographer representation is a balancing act of determining what to show through poetic prosaic language and style versus what to tell via straightforward factual reporting the individual skills of an ethnographer influence what appears to be the value of the research according to norman k denzin ethnographers should consider the following seven principles when observing recording and sampling data citation needed the groups should combine symbolic meanings with patterns of interaction observe the world from the point of view of the subject while maintaining the distinction between everyday and scientific perceptions of reality link the group s symbols and their meanings with the social relationships record all behavior the methodology should highlight phases of process change and stability the act should be a type of symbolic interactionism use concepts that would avoid casual explanations forms edit autoethnography edit main article autoethnography autoethnography is a form of ethnographic research in which a researcher connects personal experiences to wider cultural political and social meanings and understandings 73 74 75 76 according to adams et al autoethnography uses a researcher s personal experience to describe and critique cultural beliefs practices and experiences acknowledges and values a researcher s relationships with others uses deep and careful self reflection typically referred to as reflexivity to name and interrogate the intersections between self and society the particular and the general the personal and the political shows people in the process of figuring out what to do how to live and the meaning of their struggles balances intellectual and methodological rigor emotion and creativity strives for social justice and to make life better 77 bochner and ellis have also defined autoethnography as an autobiographical genre of writing and research that displays multiple layers of consciousness connecting the personal to the cultural 78 65 they further indicate that autoethnography is typically written in first person and can appear in a variety of forms such as short stories poetry fiction novels photographic essays personal essays journals fragmented and layered writing and social science prose 78 65 genealogical method edit the genealogical method investigates links of kinship determined by marriage and descent the method owes its origin from the book of british ethnographer w h r rivers titled kinship and social organisation in 1911 79 genealogy or kinship commonly plays a crucial role in the structure of non industrial societies determining both social relations and group relationship to the past marriage for example is frequently pivotal in determining military alliances between villages clans or ethnic groups in the field of epistemology the term is used to characterize the philosophical method employed by such writers as friedrich nietzsche and michel foucault digital ethnography edit main article online ethnography digital ethnography is also seen as virtual ethnography this type of ethnography is not so typical as ethnography recorded by pen and pencil digital ethnography allows for a lot more opportunities to look at different cultures and societies traditional ethnography may use videos or images but digital ethnography goes more in depth for example digital ethnographers would use social media platforms such as twitter or blogs so that people s interactions and behaviors can be studied modern developments in computing power and ai have enabled higher efficiencies in ethnographic data collection via multimedia and computational analysis using machine learning to corroborate many data sources together to produce a refined output for various purposes 80 a modern example of this technology in application is the use of captured audio in smart devices transcribed to issue targeted adverts often reconciled vs other metadata or product development data for designers 81 digital ethnography comes with its own set of ethical questions and the association of internet researchers ethical guidelines are frequently used 82 gabriele de seta s paper three lies of digital ethnography 83 explores some of the methodological questions more central to a specific ethnographic approach to internet studies drawing upon fine s classic text 84 multispecies ethnography edit multispecies ethnography in particular focuses on both nonhuman and human participants within a group or culture as opposed to just human participants in traditional ethnography a multispecies ethnography in comparison to other forms of ethnography studies species that are connected to people and our social lives species affect and are affected by culture economics and politics 85 the study s roots go back to general anthropology of animals one of the earliest well known studies was lewis henry morgan s the american beaver and his works 1868 his study closely observed a group of beavers in northern michigan morgan s main objective was to highlight that the daily individual tasks that the beavers performed were complex communicative acts that had been passed down for generations 86 in the early 2000s multi species ethnography took on a huge increase in popularity the annual meetings of the american anthropological association began to host the multispecies salon 87 a collection of discussions showcases and other events for anthropologists the event provided a space for anthropologists and artists to come together and showcase vast knowledge of different organisms and their intertwined systems 88 multispecies ethnography highlights a lot of the negative effects of these shared environments and systems not only does multispecies ethnography observe the physical relationships between organisms it also takes note of the emotional and psychological relationships built between species relational ethnography edit most ethnographies are conducted in particular settings where the researcher can witness events or behaviors relevant to the study s focusrelational ethnography articulates studying fields rather than places or processes rather than processed people meaning that relational ethnography doesn t take an object nor a bounded group that is defined by its members shared social features nor a specific location that is delimited by the boundaries of a particular area but rather the processes involving configurations of relations among different agents or institutions for instance such places could be created through an interconnection between the place at hand and the people that live within it and continuously re create meaning by sharing and changing historic narratives of this place 89 applying this form of ethnography to land and landscape munira khayyat suggests that this approach can also help to refocus previous versions of histories for example the stories of soldiers and their reception in their homes to those that have been impacted by the wars on the ground e g civilians in southern lebanon 90 notable ethnographers edit this section needs expansion with missing attribution of who or what source considers these persons ethnographers you can help by adding missing information november 2022 abu abd al rahman ibn aqil al zahiri manuel ancízar basterra 1812 1882 franz boas 1858 1942 gregory bateson 1904 1980 adriaen cornelissen van der donck c 1618 1655 mary douglas 1921 2007 raymond firth 1901 2002 leo frobenius 1873 1938 thor heyerdahl 1914 2002 zora neale hurston 1891 1960 diamond jenness 1886 1969 mary kingsley 1862 1900 carobeth laird 1895 1983 ruth landes 1908 1991 edmund leach 1910 1989 josé leite de vasconcelos 1858 1941 claude lévi strauss 1908 2009 bronisław malinowski 1884 1942 david maybury lewis 1929 2007 margaret mead 1901 1978 nicholas miklouho maclay 1846 1888 gerhard friedrich müller 1705 1783 nikolai nadezhdin 1804 1856 lubor niederle 1865 1944 dositej obradović 1739 1811 alexey okladnikov 1908 1981 sergey oldenburg 1863 1934 edward sapir 1884 1939 august ludwig von schlözer 1735 1809 james spradley 1933 1982 jean briggs 1929 2016 cora du bois 1903 1991 lila abu lughod elijah anderson born 1943 ruth behar zuzana beňušková born 1960 zalpa bersanova napoleon chagnon 1938 2019 veena das born 1945 mitchell duneier kristen r ghodsee born 1970 alice goffman born 1982 jaber f gubrium born 1945 katrina karkazis jovan cvijić richard price born 1941 marilyn strathern born 1941 carolyn ellis sadhana naithani born 1964 barrie thorne sudhir venkatesh susan visvanathan paul willis alexander macgregor stephen mikhail nikolaevich smirnov cevat şakir kabaağaçlı james h mcalexander consumer culture ethnography 1958 to 2022 citation needed see also edit area studies autoethnography critical ethnography ethnoarchaeology ethnography of communication ethnographic museum ethnology ethnosemiotics folklore immersion journalism living lab online ethnography ontology participant observation qualitative research realist ethnography video ethnography visual ethnography references edit krupat a 2023 ethnocriticism ethnography history literature in spanish university of california press isbn 978 0 520 33443 4 retrieved 2024 05 13 almagor skinner 2013 1 2 redfield 2019 skinner 2014 pp 171 203 woolf 2011 almagor skinner 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