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places to recruit more people into the movement 121 lesbian and transvestite organizations edit by the second half of the 1920s there were women s friendship associations associated both with the bfm and dfv in various cities throughout germany and in vienna in austria 46 although women were in the minority in the friendship associations radszuweit encouraged their participation he set up a separate lesbian organization in the mid 1920s and when this venture failed put lotte hahm in charge of a separate women s division within the bfm in 1927 122 119 hahm s damenklub violetta in berlin offered theater performances dances auto tours fashion shows and a moonlight cruise for its members it also had a reading room and discussion groups 123 other lesbians organized independently of both the dfv and bfm for example the magazine die bif and its associated organization while political organizations for lesbian women were not successful social clubs enjoyed greater success 124 literature scholar janin afken argues that lesbian clubs and their membership systems can be considered a first step toward an organized lesbian movement but apart from the clubs and lesbian oriented publications there was no collective political mobilization among lesbians in the weimar republic 125 the weimar republic saw some of the first transvestite organizations and publications in the world 126 the term transvestite encompassed both those who liked to dress in the clothing of the opposite sex and those who wanted to live as the opposite sex who would later be called transsexual or transgender 127 128 129 transvestites of both birth sexes frequently joined lesbian social groups but this caused friction especially in the case of male to female transvestites radszuweit encouraged this grouping as he wanted to keep feminine men out of homosexual male groupings 130 131 both the dfv and bfm set up dedicated groups for transvestites in 1927 and 1930 these groups struggled to attract and retain members 132 as it was considered gross public indecency transvestism was illegal and could lead to arrest 133 134 print media edit personal ads in homosexual publications such as this one from die freundschaft were criticized by anti vice campaigners as promoting immorality 135 mass media aimed at a homosexual audience had been impossible in imperial germany because of censorship 136 although scientific publications were generally allowed 137 the german revolution abolished censorship 138 139 publishers took advantage of the opportunity to sell a plethora of new media dealing with different aspects of sexuality 140 the first mass publication for a homosexual audience was die freundschaft appearing weekly with an initial print run of 20 000 copies 136 it aspired to be a world parliament for homosexual men and women but its editors lacked the business acumen to make this possible and its personal ads led to a ban in 1923 and 1924 141 142 by the end of the 1920s more than 20 publications for gay lesbian and gender divergent audiences were published in germany 143 among those taking advantage of new business opportunities was radszuweit who built a publishing house that catered to gay and lesbian readers unlike the nonprofit organizations that preceded him radszuweit ran his publishing house like a business seeing the pursuit of profit and the pursuit of homosexual rights to be compatible 144 145 by selling to as many readers as possible radszuweit wanted to both make money and promote the cause of homosexual equality his publications used plain language and salacious images of naked young men to attract readers 144 radszuweit combined entertainment and politics in his magazines he used his magazines to promote the bfm and advertise its events as well as encourage pink capitalism by advising his readers to patronize businesses owned by homosexuals 146 although critics decried the lowbrow nature of his publications radszuweit maintained that only by reaching a large audience could the cause of decriminalization be achieved 116 his awareness of different content preferences among german homosexuals and exploitation of market segmentation with multiple publications enabled radszuweit to increase circulation in 1926 he claimed a total circulation of 5 140 000 copies for all his titles radszuweit s magazines had subscribers outside germany some as far away as brazil 147 in the weimar years there was the first attempt to compile a canon of homosexual literature and find historical figures who were claimed to be gay 148 relaxation of censorship led to an explosion of lesbian pulp fiction 30 novels being available to german speaking readers as well as the first lesbian guidebook the most famous work of lesbian literature was the play gestern und heute later made into the 1931 film mädchen in uniform 149 censorship edit censorship advocates who ranged from pro democracy moderates to the far right believed that exposure to the wrong media would turn young people to promiscuity or homosexuality instead of heterosexual family relationships in the aftermath of a devastating war there was a moral panic about sexualized media which they perceived to be a threat to the german nation 150 151 censorship advocates prioritized homosexual publications because they believed that the publications could turn male adolescents into homosexuals 152 censorship was a major threat to the homosexual movement which depended on these publications to exist and grow 153 while conservatives feared that a book or magazine would suddenly transform a person s sexuality lesbians described reading as part of a process in which they discovered their sexuality 154 for homosexuals who were afraid to come out lived in less tolerant parts of germany or could not afford to participate in other aspects of the subculture the magazines provided their only connection to like minded people and fostered a sense of community and identity 155 156 there was a trial of die freundschaft for violating the anti obscenity statute paragraph 184 in 1921 152 the court convicted the defendants and the conviction was upheld on appeal to the supreme court the ruling nevertheless was considered a victory for homosexual publications as the court set limits on what content could be considered obscene that expanded free expression compared to the prewar period 157 the court decision banned erotic material defined broadly one passage deemed obscene discussed two men kissing adapting to this decision homosexual publications tried to avoid any sexual content including in their personal ads 158 hirschfeld one of the only sexologists in germany who argued that homosexuality was exclusively innate testified for the defense at many censorship trials 159 in the early 1920s brand also faced lawsuits over his publications especially their personal ads 160 in 1926 the reichstag passed the trash and smut law de which targeted publications considered immoral and aesthetically worthless affected publications could not be publicly displayed or sold to minors 161 162 almost all homosexual publications publicly sold between 1927 and 1933 ended up on the lists of restricted publications at some point 163 164 faced with a listing editors of homosexual publications had a difficult decision to make publish under a different name wait out the ban or keep selling to subscribers only despite losing advertising revenue 165 radszuweit implemented self censorship to get his publications off of the restricted list 166 in contrast die freundschaft sold only by subscription after 1927 to avoid censorship 91 radszuweit s attempt to promote his publications as respectable backfired as he was unable to persuade those charged with enforcing the censorship law 167 part of the motivation for targeting homosexual publications with the law was to smother the homosexual movement which could not exist without them the regulators recognized that the periodicals were not commercially viable without the content objected to by morals campaigners 168 respectability edit see also respectability politics both the dfv and bfm were oriented toward integration rather than sexual liberation for its own sake according to historian marti lybeck and defined themselves in opposition to the libertine nightclub culture 169 their publications in both political and literary writings promoted monogamous relationships in conformity with bourgeois norms and a form of masculinity outwardly indistinguishable from broader society s 170 effeminate men were unwelcome in the associations as they were seen as detrimental to the political goals of the movement and male prostitutes were excluded entirely 171 172 173 both effeminacy and prostitution were decried in homosexual publications 174 in the context of political organizing neither hirschfeld s model of homosexuality which assumed that homosexual men have some characteristics of women nor that of the masculinists was satisfactory because both effeminacy and pederasty were socially reviled by the 1920s many homosexual magazines had adopted the belief that homosexuality is innate and that homosexual men are not effeminate 175 the military service of many homosexual and transvestite men during world war i was often cited in weimar era publications and radszuweit criticized the reichswehr for dismissing any soldier found to be homosexual 176 177 in editorials radszuweit promoted respectability politics but his respectable image was undercut by eroticized images of youths that he printed to increase sales these images allowed his audience to fantasize about their own lives 178 historian javier samper vendrell states this position may have been pragmatic but it was nonetheless a flawed conformist and repressive demand for rights 171 the most represented group in transvestite organizations were those who considered themselves cross dressing heterosexual men while homosexual cross dressers were marginalized both in transvestite and homosexual associations 179 45 cross dressing male prostitutes and criminals were seen as a threat to transvestite respectability accordingly they were banned and described in the transvestite media as scum of humanity 180 lesbian and transvestite associations encouraged respectability in their publications urged others to keep a low profile in public and excluded prostitutes from their associations 181 working class lesbians who often gathered in separate spaces tended to have less interest in respectability and were more likely to support the communist party of germany kpd 182 cross dressing male prostitutes and other excluded groups may not have embraced respectability politics but they have left little trace in the historical record 176 film edit in 1919 hirschfeld collaborated with richard oswald on the film different from the others the first german feature film to cover homosexuality featuring actors conrad veidt reinhold schünzel and anita berber it portrayed a successful violinist who committed suicide after being blackmailed the film was widely viewed and positively evaluated by critics generating immense discussion 183 184 185 some viewers perceived the violinist as embodying negative stereotypes of effeminate and limp wristed homosexuals his ambiguous relationship with his younger student fanned fears of homosexual seduction 186 screenings of the film were disrupted by morality campaigners nationalists and freikorps 187 188 partly in response to different from the others film censorship was reinstated in 1920 and the film was banned 189 190 184 political activism edit the homosexual movement was part of a broad coalition of sexual reformers along with feminists and was generally backed by the spd and the kpd who supported an approach to sexuality that was based on rationality rather than religion this coalition was opposed by the center party the conservative women s movement protestant morality campaigners and right wing conservatives from the german national people s party dvnp backing the exclusive role of heterosexual marriage against immorality which included not just homosexual emancipation but also gender equality female prostitution extramarital sex sexualized media birth control and abortion 191 different strategies edit magnus hirschfeld center with collaborators bernard schapiro left and li shiu tong c 1930 on 1 july 1919 hirschfeld opened the institute for sexual science institut für sexualwissenschaft the first institution dedicated to the study of sexuality to an audience of prominent germans including politicians medical professionals and intellectuals 84 conservatives condemned the institute as a symbol of everything they disliked about the weimar republic 192 the institute carried out some of the first sex reassignment surgeries 45 193 194 hirschfeld called the institute a child of the revolution 192 hoping that through scientific research and public education he would be able to persuade weimar politicians to change their stance on homosexuality 195 196 hirschfeld was increasingly sidelined by the end of the 1920s because of antisemitism and the competing theory that homosexuality was communicable 197 198 hirschfeld s collaborator kurt hiller was skeptical of the strategy focusing on research and education hiller advocated for the creation of a homosexual political party modeled on ethnic minority parties calculating that if homosexuals were one percent of germany s population and voted together they could elect several reichstag deputies according to the new system of proportional representation 199 200 radszuweit also considered establishing a homosexual party but eventually decided against the idea 201 hiller also supported a mass self denunciation of homosexuals which hirschfeld dismissed as impossible 199 hiller who gained increasing influence within the whk 202 and took over the leadership in 1929 emphasized human rights over science from a neo kantian perspective he argued that the state had no justification for banning self expression unless the activity of the individual collides with the interests of another individual or perhaps of the whole the society 203 unlike hirschfeld 204 hiller directly compared homosexuals and jews arguing that the former had it worse 203 205 after 1923 the bfm increasingly distanced itself from the whk radszuweit was a critic of hirschfeld s theory of intersexuality 206 the bfm encouraged its members to come out to friends family or coworkers to increase public acceptance of homosexuality 207 the bfm officially backed the spd but welcomed homosexuals of any political affiliation although the majority of its members supported either the spd or kpd which shared the spd s commitment to repealing paragraph 175 others especially from the middle and upper classes backed right wing parties 201 156 the bfm also lobbied on behalf of its members sending brochures to parliamentarians ministers judges and even president paul von hindenburg in 1924 it sent more than 200 0...