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the influence of the ancient near east and mediterranean and for its use of the kharoṣṭhī script as opposed to brahmic scripts used by other prakrits gandhārī is an early middle indo aryan language a prakrit with unique features that distinguish it from all other known prakrits phonetically it maintained all three old indo aryan sibilants s ś and ṣ as distinct sounds whereas they fell together as s in other prakrits a change that is considered to be one of the earliest middle indo aryan shifts 2 the language also preserves certain old indo aryan consonant clusters mostly those involving v and r 3 in addition intervocalic old indo aryan th and dh are written early on with a special letter represented by scholars with an underlined s s which is later used interchangeably with s suggesting an early sound change likely to the voiced dental fricative ð and then subsequent shifts to z and finally a plain s 4 the middle prakrits typically weakened th to dh which later shifted to h 5 kharoṣṭhī does not render the distinction between short and long vowels so details regarding its handling of this feature are not known 6 gandhārī has been linked with members of the modern dardic language family including shina 7 and kohistani languages 8 rediscovery and history edit initial identification of a distinct language occurred through study of one of the buddhist āgamas the dīrghāgama which had been translated into chinese by zhu fonian chinese 竺佛念 based on a text read out by buddhayaśas chinese 佛陀耶舍 the now dominant hypothesis on the propagation of buddhism in central asia goes back to 1932 when e waldschmidt remarked that the names quoted in the chinese dīrghāgama t 1 which had been translated by the avowedly dharmaguptaka monk buddhayaśas who also translated the dharmaguptakavinaya were not rendered from sanskrit but from a then undetermined prākrit also found in the khotan dharmapada in 1946 bailey identified this prākrit which he named gandhārī as corresponding to the language of most kharoṣṭhī inscriptions from northwestern india 9 available evidence also indicates that the first buddhist missions to khotan were carried out by the dharmaguptaka sect and used a kharoṣṭhī written gandhārī 10 however there is evidence that other sects and traditions of buddhism also used gandhārī and evidence that the dharmaguptaka sect also used sanskrit at times it is true that most manuscripts in gandhārī belong to the dharmaguptakas but virtually all schools inclusive mahāyāna used some gandhārī von hinüber 1982b and 1983 has pointed out incompletely sanskritised gandhārī words in works heretofore ascribed to the sarvāstivādins and drew the conclusion that either the sectarian attribution had to be revised or the tacit dogma gandhārī equals dharmaguptaka is wrong conversely dharmaguptakas also resorted to sanskrit 11 starting in the first century of the common era there was a large trend toward a type of gandhārī which was heavily sanskritised 11 linguistic evidence links some groups of the dardic languages with gandhari 12 13 14 the kohistani languages now all being displaced from their original homelands were once more widespread in the region and most likely descend from the ancient dialects of the region of gandhara 8 the last to disappear was tirahi still spoken some years ago in a few villages in the vicinity of jalalabad in eastern afghanistan by descendants of migrants expelled from tirah by the afridi pashtuns in the 19th century 12 georg morgenstierne claimed that tirahi is probably the remnant of a dialect group extending from tirah through the peshawar district into swat and dir 15 nowadays it must be entirely extinct and the region is now dominated by iranian languages brought in by later immigrations such as pashto 12 among the modern day indo aryan languages still spoken today torwali another language within the dardic subgroup shows the closest linguistic affinity possible to niya prakrit a dialect of gandhārī once spoken in niya now xinjiang china 16 phonology edit in general terms gandhārī is a middle prakrit a term for middle stage middle indo aryan languages it only begins to show the characteristics of the late prakrits in the 1st century of the common era 17 the middle prakrit phonetic features are the weakening of intervocalic consonants degemination and voicing such as the shift of oia k to g the most rapid loss was the dentals which started to disappear completely even before the late period as with t as in pitar piu in contrast retroflex consonants were never lost 18 there is also evidence of the loss of a distinction between aspirates and plain stops as well which is unusual in the indo aryan languages 19 in central asian gandhārī there is often confusion in writing nasals with homorganic stops 20 it is unclear if this might represent assimilation of the stop or the appearance of prenasalised consonants to the phonetic inventory grammar edit gandhārī grammar is difficult to analyse endings were eroded not only by the loss of final consonants and cluster simplification of all prakrits but also by the apparent weakening of final vowels to the point that they were no longer differentiated 21 nonetheless there was still at least a rudimentary system of grammatical case 22 verbal forms are highly restricted in usage due to the primary usage of longer texts to translations of religious documents and the narrative nature of the sutras but seem to parallel changes in other prakrits 23 lexicon edit the lexicon of gandhārī is also limited by its textual usage it is still possible to determine unusual forms such as gandhārī forms that show commonalities with forms in modern indo aryan languages of the area notably some groups of the dardic languages an example is the word for sister which is a descendant of old indo aryan svasṛ as in the dardic languages whereas all the indo aryan languages have replaced that term with reflexes of bhaginī 24 literature edit until 1994 the only gāndhāri manuscript available to the scholars was a birch bark manuscript of a buddhist text the dharmapāda discovered at kohmāri mazār near hotan in xinjiang in 1893 ce from 1994 on a large number of fragmentary manuscripts of buddhist texts were discovered in eastern afghanistan and western pakistan these include 25 29 fragments of birch bark scrolls of british library collection consisting of parts of the dharmapada anavatapta gāthā the rhinoceros sūtra sangitiparyaya and a collection of sutras from the ekottara āgama 129 fragments of palm leaf folios of schøyen collection 27 fragments of palm leaf folios of hirayama collection and 18 fragments of palm leaf folios of hayashidera collection consisting of the mahāyāna mahāparinirvāṇa sūtra and the bhadrakalpikā sūtra 24 birch bark scrolls of senior collection consists of mostly different sutras and the anavatapta gāthā 8 fragments of a single birch bark scroll and 2 small fragments of another scroll of university of washington collection consisting of probably an abhidharma text or other scholastic commentaries the current corpus of gandhārī literature consists of 391 manuscripts including fragments 901 administrative documents mainly discovered from niya in the kingdom of shanshan and 1 234 inscriptions in addition to coin legends 26 translations from gāndhāri edit mahayana buddhist pure land sūtras were brought from gandhāra to china as early as 147 ce when the kushan monk lokakṣema began translating the first buddhist sutras into chinese 27 the earliest of these translations show evidence of having been translated from gandhārī 28 it is also known that manuscripts in the kharoṣṭhī script existed in china during this period 29 see also edit pre islamic scripts in afghanistan references edit salomon 2007 pp 182 183 masica 1993 p 169 salomon allchin barnard 1999 p 110 salomon allchin barnard 1999 p 121 masica 1993 p 180 salomon allchin barnard 1999 p 124 schmidt 2008 p 2 1 2 cacopardo cacopardo 2001 p 253 this leads us to the conclusion that the ancient dialects of the peshawar district the country between tirah and swât must have belonged to the tirahi kohistani type and that the westernmost dardic language pashai which probably had its ancient centre in laghmân has enjoyed a comparatively independent position since early times today the kohistâni languages descendent from the ancient dialects that developed in these valleys have all been displaced from their original homelands as described below heirman bumbacher 2007 p 97 heirman bumbacher 2007 p 98 1 2 heirman bumbacher 2007 p 99 1 2 3 dani 2001 pp 64 67 saxena 2011 p 35 liljegren 2016 p 14 zoller identifies the dardic languages as the modern successors of the middle indo aryan mia language gandhari also gandhari prakrit but along with bashir zoller concludes that the family tree model alone will not explain all the historical developments jain cardona 2007 p 991 salomon 1998 p 79 salomon allchin barnard 1999 p 125 salomon allchin barnard 1999 p 125 6 salomon allchin barnard 1999 p 127 salomon allchin barnard 1999 p 129 salomon allchin barnard 1999 p 130 salomon allchin barnard 1999 p 132 salomon allchin barnard 1999 p 133 salomon allchin barnard 1999 p 134 salomon 2008 baums glass lancaster park 1979 p 24 mukherjee 1996 p 15 nakamura 1987 p 205 bibliography edit lancaster lewis r park sung bae 1979 the korean buddhist canon a descriptive catalogue university of california press isbn 978 0 520 03159 3 nakamura hajime 1987 indian buddhism a survey with bibliographical notes motilal banarsidass isbn 978 81 208 0272 8 masica colin 1993 the indo aryan languages cambridge university press isbn 978 0 521 29944 2 mukherjee b n 1996 india in early central asia a survey of indian scripts languages and literatures in central asia of the first millennium a d harman publishing house isbn 978 81 85151 98 4 salomon richard 1998 indian epigraphy a guide to the study of inscriptions in sanskrit prakrit and the other indo aryan languages oxford university press isbn 978 0 19 535666 3 2006 patrick olivelle ed between the empires society in india 300 bce to 400 ce oxford university press usa isbn 978 0 19 977507 1 2007 gandhārī in the worlds of india iran and central asia bulletin of the asia institute 21 179 192 issn 0890 4464 jstor 24049371 2008 gandhārī language encyclopædia iranica encyclopædia iranica salomon richard allchin raymond barnard mark 1999 ancient buddhist scrolls from gandhāra the british library kharoṣṭhī fragments university of washington press isbn 978 0 295 97769 0 dani ahmad hasan 2001 history of northern areas of pakistan upto 2000 a d sang e meel publications isbn 978 969 35 1231 1 cacopardo alberto m cacopardo augusto s 2001 gates of peristan history religion and society in the hindu kush isiao p 253 isbn 978 88 6323 149 6 jain danesh cardona george 2007 the indo aryan languages routledge p 991 isbn 978 1 135 79710 2 heirman ann bumbacher stephan peter 2007 the spread of buddhism brill isbn 978 90 474 2006 4 schmidt ruth 2008 a grammar of the shina language of indus kohistan harrassowitz p 2 isbn 9783447056762 saxena anju 2011 himalayan languages past and present walter de gruyter isbn 978 3 11 089887 3 liljegren henrik 2016 a grammar of palula language science press pp 13 14 isbn 978 3 946234 31 9 baums stefan glass andrew corpus of gāndhārī texts gandhari org retrieved 6 september 2026 further reading edit burrow t 1936 the dialectical position of the niya prakrit bulletin of the school of oriental studies university of london 8 2 3 419 435 issn 1356 1898 jstor 608051 halfmann j 2024 observations on gandhārī orthography and phonology st clusters and related problems pdf bhasha 3 2 191 210 doi 10 30687 bhasha 2785 5953 2024 02 002 external links edit gandhari org complete corpus catalog bibliography and dictionary of gandhārī texts gippert jost titus texts gandhari dharmapada frame titus uni frankfurt de v t e indo aryan languages dardic kashmiric kashmiri kishtwari pogali shinaic brokskat kalkoti kohistani shina kundal shahi sawi shina palula ushoji kunar dameli gawar bati nangalami shumashti kohistani bateri chilisso gawri gowro indus kohistani tirahi torwali mankiyali wotapuri katarqalai others chitrali chitrali kalasha urtsuniwar khowar gandhari pashayi northern eastern doteli jumli nepali central garhwali kumaoni western dogri kangri bhadarwahi churahi bhateali bilaspuri chambeali gaddi pangwali mandeali mahasu pahari jaunsari kullui pahari kinnauri hinduri sirmauri sarazi northwestern punjabi eastern punjabi dialects sansi lahnda hindko inku khetrani pahari pothwari saraiki sindhi jadgali kholosi kutchi luwati memoni sindhi western gujarati aer gujarati lisan ud dawat jandavra koli kachi parkari wadiyara saurashtra vaghri rajasthani bagri thari dhundari goaria gujari harauti lambadi loarki malvi marwari mewari mewati ahirwati nimadi od shekhawati bhil bhili bhilali chodri dhodia kukna dhanki dubli bauria bhilori mawchi magari palya bareli pauri bareli rathwi bareli pardhi gamit kalto vasavi wagdi vaagri booli romani northern british romani angloromani scottish cant welsh romani northwestern romani finnish romani laiuse romani scandoromani sinte romani others balkan romani rumelian romani zargari romani baltic romani caló carpathian romani bohemian romani greek romani serbian romani vlax romani kalderash romani erromintxela others khandeshi dawoodi domari kurbet lomavren central western braj bhasha bundeli haryanvi hindustani kauravi hindi hinglish urdish urdu deccani judeo urdu hyderabadi urdu rekhta kannauji sansi sadhukkadi eastern awadhi bagheli chhattisgarhi fiji hindi others parya eastern bihari bhojpuric bhojpuri caribbean hindustani magahi magahi maithili maithili angika bajjika sadanic sadri kurmali khortha tharuic tharu kochila buksa majhi musasa others kumhali kuswaric bote darai danwar gauda kamarupa bengali bengali dialects bishnupriya manipuri hajong kharia thar kurmukar mal paharia noakhali sylheti tanchangya chittagonian chakma rohingya kamarupic assamese kamrupi dehan goalpariya kayort rajbanshi nepal rangpuri surjapuri odia odia sambalpuri desia bhatri bodo parja reli kupia halbic halbi kamar bhunjia nahari southern marathi konkani marathic marathi varhadi andh berar deccan varli phudagi katkari kadodi konkanic konkani maharashtrian konkani nawayathi insular dhivehi sinhala vedda old sanskrit vedic classical mitanni superstrate middle early ashokan prakrit pāli early ardhamagadhi middle prakrit buddhist hybrid sanskrit dramatic prakrits ardhamagadhi magadhi maharashtri shauraseni epigraphical hybrid sanskrit gāndhārī gaudi monumental prakrit paishachi late apabhraṃśa abahattha apabhraṃśa elu kamarupi khasa prakrit proto languages proto indo iranian proto indo aryan early romani unclassified badeshi unknown further classification bazigar chinali lahul chinali lahul lohar sheikhgal pidgins and creoles andaman creole hindi bombay hindi haflong hindi kurbet nagamese nefamese vedda see also indo iranian languages nuris...