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Text of the page (random words):
bility but not the fact of an underlying causal relation different theories concerning the observed trends were developed the scientific discussion state of 2016 is dominated by two concepts which appear to cover almost all possible causal connections if appropriately combined these are the theories of biological alterations in the brain due to an earlier drug use and the theory of similar attitudes across different drugs 2 26 27 alterations in the brain edit adolescent rats repeatedly injected with tetrahydrocannabinol increased the self administration of heroin results based on 11 male rats 28 and 50 male rats 29 morphine study based on 12 male rats 30 and also nicotine 34 rats 31 there were direct indications that the alteration consisted of lasting anatomical changes in the reward system of the brain 28 29 because the reward system is anatomically physiologically and functionally almost identical across the class of mammals 32 33 34 the importance of the findings from animal studies for the reward system in the human brain in relation to the liability to the use of further drugs has been pointed out in several reviews 35 36 37 38 in mice nicotine increased the probability of later consumption of cocaine and the experiments permitted concrete conclusions on the underlying molecular biological alteration in the brain 39 the biological changes in mice correspond to the epidemiological observations in humans that nicotine consumption is coupled to an increased probability of later use of cannabis and cocaine 40 as well as other drugs 41 in rats alcohol increased the probability of later addiction to cocaine and again relevant alterations in the reward system were identified 42 43 these observations thus correspond to the epidemiological findings that the consumption of alcohol in humans is coupled to a later increased risk of a transition from cocaine use to cocaine addiction 44 45 controlled animal and human studies showed that caffeine energy drinks in combination with alcohol increased the craving for more alcohol more strongly than alcohol alone 46 these findings correspond to epidemiological data that people who consume energy drinks generally showed an increased tendency to take alcohol and other substances 47 20 personal social and genetic factors edit see also attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and self medication psychostimulants according to the concept of similar attitudes across different drugs common liability to addiction a number of personal social genetic and environmental factors can lead to a generally increased interest in various drugs the sequence of first time use would then depend on these factors 2 48 violations of the typical sequence of first time drug usage give credit to this theory for example in japan where cannabis use is uncommon 83 2 of the people who used illicit substances did not use cannabis first 2 the concept received additional support from a large scale genetic analysis that showed a genetic basis for the connection of the prevalence of cigarette smoking and cannabis use during the life of a person 49 the results of a twin study presented indications that familial genetic and familial environmental factors do not fully explain these associations and are possibly only relevant for sequences of some drugs in 219 same sex dutch identical and non identical twin pairs one co twin had reported cannabis use before the age of 18 whereas the other had not in the cannabis group the lifetime prevalence of later reported use of party drugs was four times higher and the lifetime prevalence of later reported use of hard drugs was seven times higher than in the non cannabis group the authors concluded that at least family influences both genetic and social ones could not explain the differences the study noted that besides a potential causal role of cannabis use non shared environment factors could play a role in the association such as differing peer affiliations that preceded the cannabis use 50 51 another twin study of 510 same sex twin pairs also examined the association of earlier cannabis use and later hard drug use like other studies it examined later drug use differences between siblings where one sibling had used cannabis early and the other had not the study examined identical twins who share approximately 100 of their genes and non identical twins who share approximately 50 of their genes separately and adjusted for additional confounders such as peer drug use it found after confounder adjustment that the associations with later hard drug use existed only for non identical twins this suggests a significant genetic factor in the likelihood of later hard drug usage the study suggested that a causal role of cannabis use in later hard drug usage is minimal if it exists at all and that cannabis use and hard drug use share the same influencing factors such as genetics and environment 52 51 see also edit drug policy substance abuse prevention substance use disorder tobacco and other drugs references edit gateway drug hypothesis drug policy facts 1 2 3 4 vanyukov mm tarter re kirillova gp et al june 2012 common liability to addiction and gateway hypothesis theoretical empirical and evolutionary perspective drug alcohol depend review 123 suppl 1 s3 17 doi 10 1016 j drugalcdep 2011 12 018 pmc 3600369 pmid 22261179 1 2 3 is cannabis a gateway drug key findings and literature review national institute of justice retrieved 2022 04 01 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 marijuana research report is marijuana a gateway drug national institute on drug abuse july 2020 retrieved november 7 2020 1 2 secades villa r garcia rodríguez o jin cj wang s blanco c 2015 probability and predictors of the cannabis gateway effect a national study int j drug policy 26 2 135 42 doi 10 1016 j drugpo 2014 07 011 pmc 4291295 pmid 25168081 cite journal cs1 maint multiple names authors list link garcía pérez ángel aonso diego gema weidberg sara secades villa roberto 2023 09 01 testing the cannabis gateway hypothesis in a national sample of spanish adolescents addictive behaviors 144 107751 doi 10 1016 j addbeh 2023 107751 issn 0306 4603 pmid 37224582 d b kandel ed stages and pathways of drug involvement examining the gateway hypothesis cambridge university press 2002 isbn 978 0 521 78969 1 p 4 erich goode marijuana use and the progression to dangarous drugs in miller loren ed 1974 marijuana effects on human behavior burlington elsevier science pp 303 338 isbn 978 1 4832 5811 9 kandel d 1975 stages in adolescent involvement in drug use science 190 4217 912 914 bibcode 1975sci 190 912k doi 10 1126 science 1188374 hdl 10983 25298 pmid 1188374 s2cid 30124614 yamaguchi k kandel d b 1984 patterns of drug use from adolescence to young adulthood ii sequences of progression american journal of public health 74 7 668 672 doi 10 2105 ajph 74 7 668 pmc 1651663 pmid 6742252 kandel d yamaguchi k 1993 from beer to crack developmental patterns of drug involvement american journal of public health 83 6 851 855 doi 10 2105 ajph 83 6 851 pmc 1694748 pmid 8498623 d b kandel ed stages and pathways of drug involvement examining the gateway hypothesis cambridge university press 2002 isbn 978 0 521 78969 1 pp 3 10 secades villa r garcia rodríguez o jin c j wang s blanco c 2015 probability and predictors of the cannabis gateway effect a national study international journal of drug policy 26 2 135 142 doi 10 1016 j drugpo 2014 07 011 pmc 4291295 pmid 25168081 kluger b triolo p jones w jankovic j 2015 the therapeutic potential of cannabinoids for movement disorders movement disorders 30 3 313 27 doi 10 1002 mds 26142 pmc 4357541 pmid 25649017 kirby t barry a e 2012 alcohol as a gateway drug a study of us 12th graders pdf journal of school health 82 8 371 9 doi 10 1111 j 1746 1561 2012 00712 x pmid 22712674 archived from the original pdf on 2016 06 04 retrieved 2016 05 26 fadus matthew c smith tracy t squeglia lindsay m 2019 the rise of e cigarettes pod mod devices and juul among youth factors influencing use health implications and downstream effects drug and alcohol dependence 201 85 93 doi 10 1016 j drugalcdep 2019 04 011 issn 0376 8716 pmc 7183384 pmid 31200279 courtney ke mejia mh jacobus j 2017 longitudinal studies on the etiology of cannabis use disorder a review current addiction reports 4 2 43 52 doi 10 1007 s40429 017 0133 3 pmc 5644349 pmid 29057198 badiani a boden jm de pirro s fergusson dm horwood lj harold gt 2015 tobacco smoking and cannabis use in a longitudinal birth cohort evidence of reciprocal causal relationships drug and alcohol dependence 150 69 76 doi 10 1016 j drugalcdep 2015 02 015 hdl 10523 10359 pmid 25759089 taylor m collin sm munafò mr macleod j hickman m heron j 2017 patterns of cannabis use during adolescence and their association with harmful substance use behaviour findings from a uk birth cohort journal of epidemiology and community health 71 8 764 770 doi 10 1136 jech 2016 208503 pmc 5537531 pmid 28592420 1 2 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