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f a rampart crater so called because of the rampart like edge of the ejecta in the yuty crater the ejecta completely covers an older crater at its side showing that the ejected material is just a thin layer 36 the geological history of mars can be broadly classified into many epochs but the following are the three major ones noachian epoch named after noachis terra formation of the oldest extant surfaces of mars 3 8 billion years ago to 3 5 billion years ago noachian age surfaces are scarred by many large impact craters the tharsis bulge volcanic upland is thought to have formed during this period with extensive flooding by liquid water late in the epoch hesperian epoch named after hesperia planum 3 5 billion years ago to 1 8 billion years ago the hesperian epoch is marked by the formation of extensive lava plains amazonian epoch named after amazonis planitia 1 8 billion years ago to present amazonian regions have few meteorite impact craters but are otherwise quite varied olympus mons the largest volcano in the known universe formed during this period along with lava flows elsewhere on mars ceres edit main article ceres dwarf planet this section needs to be updated please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information october 2015 the geology of the dwarf planet ceres was largely unknown until dawn spacecraft explored it in early 2015 however certain surface features such as piazzi named after the dwarf planets discoverer had been resolved a ceres s oblateness is consistent with a differentiated body a rocky core overlain with an icy mantle this 100 kilometer thick mantle 23 28 of ceres by mass 50 by volume contains 200 million cubic kilometers of water which is more than the amount of fresh water on earth this result is supported by the observations made by the keck telescope in 2002 and by evolutionary modeling also some characteristics of its surface and history such as its distance from the sun which weakened solar radiation enough to allow some fairly low freezing point components to be incorporated during its formation point to the presence of volatile materials in the interior of ceres it has been suggested that a remnant layer of liquid water may have survived to the present under a layer of ice the surface composition of ceres is broadly similar to that of c type asteroids some differences do exist the ubiquitous features of the cererian ir spectra are those of hydrated materials which indicate the presence of significant amounts of water in the interior other possible surface constituents include iron rich clay minerals cronstedtite and carbonate minerals dolomite and siderite which are common minerals in carbonaceous chondrite meteorites the spectral features of carbonates and clay minerals are usually absent in the spectra of other c type asteroids sometimes ceres is classified as a g type asteroid the cererian surface is relatively warm the maximum temperature with the sun overhead was estimated from measurements to be 235 k about 38 c 36 f on 5 may 1991 prior to the dawn mission only a few cererian surface features had been unambiguously detected high resolution ultraviolet hubble space telescope images taken in 1995 showed a dark spot on its surface which was nicknamed piazzi in honor of the discoverer of ceres this was thought to be a crater later near infrared images with a higher resolution taken over a whole rotation with the keck telescope using adaptive optics showed several bright and dark features moving with ceres s rotation two dark features had circular shapes and are presumably craters one of them was observed to have a bright central region whereas another was identified as the piazzi feature more recent visible light hubble space telescope images of a full rotation taken in 2003 and 2004 showed 11 recognizable surface features the natures of which are currently unknown one of these features corresponds to the piazzi feature observed earlier these last observations also determined that the north pole of ceres points in the direction of right ascension 19 h 24 min 291 declination 59 in the constellation draco this means that ceres s axial tilt is very small about 3 atmosphere edit there are indications that ceres may have a tenuous atmosphere and water frost on the surface surface water ice is unstable at distances less than 5 au from the sun so it is expected to vaporize if it is exposed directly to solar radiation water ice can migrate from the deep layers of ceres to the surface but escapes in a very short time as a result it is difficult to detect water vaporization water escaping from polar regions of ceres was possibly observed in the early 1990s but this has not been unambiguously demonstrated it may be possible to detect escaping water from the surroundings of a fresh impact crater or from cracks in the subsurface layers of ceres ultraviolet observations by the iue spacecraft detected statistically significant amounts of hydroxide ions near the cererean north pole which is a product of water vapor dissociation by ultraviolet solar radiation in early 2014 using data from the herschel space observatory it was discovered that there are several localized not more than 60 km in diameter mid latitude sources of water vapor on ceres which each give off about 10 26 molecules or 3 kg of water per second two potential source regions designated piazzi 123 e 21 n and region a 231 e 23 n have been visualized in the near infrared as dark areas region a also has a bright center by the w m keck observatory possible mechanisms for the vapor release are sublimation from about 0 6 km2 of exposed surface ice or cryovolcanic eruptions resulting from radiogenic internal heat or from pressurization of a subsurface ocean due to growth of an overlying layer of ice surface sublimation would be expected to decline as ceres recedes from the sun in its eccentric orbit whereas internally powered emissions should not be affected by orbital position the limited data available are more consistent with cometary style sublimation the spacecraft dawn is approaching ceres at aphelion which may constrain dawn s ability to observe this phenomenon note this info was taken directly from the main article sources for the material are included there small solar system bodies edit asteroids comets and meteoroids are all debris remaining from the nebula in which the solar system formed 4 6 billion years ago asteroid belt edit main article asteroid belt image of the main asteroid belt and the trojan asteroids the asteroid belt is located between mars and jupiter it is made of thousands of rocky planetesimals from 1 000 kilometres 621 mi to a few meters across these are thought to be debris of the formation of the solar system that could not form a planet due to jupiter s gravity when asteroids collide they produce small fragments that occasionally fall on earth these rocks are called meteorites and provide information about the primordial solar nebula most of these fragments have the size of sand grains they burn up in the earth s atmosphere causing them to glow like meteors comets edit main article comet a comet is a small solar system body that orbits the sun and at least occasionally exhibits a coma or atmosphere and or a tail both primarily from the effects of solar radiation upon the comet s nucleus which itself is a minor body composed of rock dust and ice kuiper belt edit main article kuiper belt the kuiper belt sometimes called the edgeworth kuiper belt is a region of the solar system beyond the planets extending from the orbit of neptune at 30 au 37 to approximately 55 au from the sun 38 it is similar to the asteroid belt although it is far larger 20 times as wide and 20 200 times as massive 39 40 like the asteroid belt it consists mainly of small bodies remnants from the solar system s formation and at least one dwarf planet pluto which may be geologically active 41 but while the asteroid belt is composed primarily of rock and metal the kuiper belt is composed largely of ices such as methane ammonia and water the objects within the kuiper belt together with the members of the scattered disc and any potential hills cloud or oort cloud objects are collectively referred to as trans neptunian objects tnos 42 two tnos have been visited and studied at close range pluto and 486958 arrokoth see also edit lunar soil martian soil water on terrestrial planets references edit weber rc lin py garnero ej williams q lognonné p january 2011 seismic detection of the lunar core science 331 6015 309 12 bibcode 2011sci 331 309w doi 10 1126 science 1199375 pmid 21212323 s2cid 206530647 see t j j 1909 the past history of the earth as inferred from the mode of formation of the solar system proceedings of the american philosophical society 48 191 american philosophical society 119 28 issn 0003 049x jstor 983817 1 2 3 4 5 6 lecture 13 the nebular theory of the origin of the solar system university of 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