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russian coup d état potempa murder of 1932 kwami affair 1932 berlin transport strike reichstag fire nazi boycott of jewish businesses related red triangle pink triangle night of the long knives röhm scandal july putsch kristallnacht italy 1919 1926 v t e revolutions of 1917 1923 1917 russian revolution pistolerismo french army mutinies potato riots conscription disturbance at the brisbane school of arts australian general strike étaples mutiny brazil strike movement 1918 austro hungarian strike german strike of january finnish civil war cattaro mutiny arab revolt rice riots british police strikes canadian labour revolt aster revolution german revolution revolutions and interventions in hungary red week swiss general strike luxembourg rebellions 1918 protest in zagreb darwin rebellion greater poland uprising 1919 christmas uprising biennio rosso tragic week southampton mutiny irish war of independence 1919 egyptian revolution first red scare la canadenca strike kinmel park mutiny march first movement black sea mutiny may fourth movement alawite revolt of 1919 turkish war of independence sette giugno epsom riot luton peace day riots battle of bow street 1920 franco syrian war kapp putsch ruhr uprising iraqi revolt patagonia rebelde husino rebellion 1921 mongolian revolution march action charles iv of hungary s attempts to retake the throne uprising in west hungary rand rebellion 1922 second italo senussi war irish civil war tenente revolts 11 september 1922 revolution 1923 1923 bulgarian coup d état september uprising küstrin putsch german october beer hall putsch hamburg uprising kraków riot the german revolution of 1918 1919 also known as the november revolution german novemberrevolution brought down the german empire at the end of world war i and set the stage for the establishment of the weimar republic the revolution was sparked by the hardships suffered by the german people during the war the economic and psychological impacts of the empire s defeat and the social tensions between the general populace and the aristocratic military and bourgeois elite 1 2 it quickly and almost bloodlessly brought down the empire by 9 november 1918 then in its second and more violent stage the supporters of a parliamentary republic defeated those who wanted to create a soviet style council republic the revolution began on 29 october 1918 when sailors at kiel mutinied against orders to sail out against the british fleet they established a revolutionary workers and soldiers council and in early november spread the revolt across germany councils took power from the existing military royal and civil authorities with little resistance or bloodshed the revolution reached berlin on 9 november a republic was proclaimed and emperor wilhelm ii fled to holland the next day on 10 november the council of the people s deputies was formed as a provisional government by members of germany s two main socialist parties under the leadership of friedrich ebert it kept most of the imperial officer corps administration and judiciary in place so that it could use their expertise to address the crises of the moment 3 those on the left wing of the revolution wanted to nationalise key industries democratise the military and set up a council republic but the moderates had control of most of the workers and soldiers councils and blocked any substantial movement towards their goals the split between the moderate and radical socialists erupted into violence in the last days of 1918 the spartacist uprising in january 1919 failed in its attempt to create a dictatorship of the proletariat and led to the murders of rosa luxemburg and karl liebknecht by members of the freikorps into the spring there were additional violently suppressed efforts to push the revolution further in the direction of a council republic as well as short lived local soviet republics notably in bavaria bremen and würzburg part of the politics series on republicanism concepts anti monarchism anti corruption civic virtue civil society consent of the governed democracy democratization liberty as non domination mixed government political representation popular sovereignty public participation republic res publica rule of law self governance separation of powers social contract social equality schools gaullism jeffersonian democracy kantianism kemalism khomeinism nasserism venizelism types autonomous capitalist christian classical democratic directorial system federal federal council imperial islamic maritime modern parliamentary peasant people s revolutionary secular sister socialist philosophers adams john arendt baggini bello bentham berlin bodin cattaneo chappell cicero condorcet crick franklin harrington honderich jefferson kant locke machiavelli madison marx mazzini mill montesquieu paine pettit polybius rousseau sandel sidney skinner quentin sunstein tocqueville warburton wollstonecraft politicians adams gerry adams john ashton atatürk azaña bartley benn bennett bolívar chapman clark katy clarke tom connolly cromwell davidson de gaulle de valera drakeford etherington fabiani ferguson flynn paul flynn stephen foot gambetta garibaldi grévy griffith griffiths harvie hatton hébert hopkins huppert iorwerth jackson jay jefferson jones elin jones lynne juárez kane khomeini la malfa lenin lewis lincoln lucas mackay mackenzie madison magid manley mannin mcdonnell mckechin mottley mullin nandy naysmith nehru papineau pound prescott ritchie robespierre sayed sillars singh skates skinner dennis slater slaughter smith spadolini stuart sun taverne venizelos washington whitlam wilson wood theoretical works republic c 375 bc de re publica 54 51 bc discourses on livy 1531 the tenure of kings and magistrates 1649 the commonwealth of oceana 1656 discourses concerning government 1698 the spirit of law 1748 discourse on inequality 1755 the social contract 1762 the federalist papers 1787 1788 rights of man 1791 perpetual peace a philosophical sketch 1794 democracy in america 1835 1840 on revolution 1963 history roman republic gaṇasaṅgha classical athens republic of venice republic of genoa republic of florence dutch republic american revolution french revolution spanish american wars of independence trienio liberal french revolution of 1848 proclamation of the republic 5 october 1910 revolution chinese revolution russian revolution german revolution of 1918 1919 turkish war of independence mongolian revolution of 1921 11 september 1922 revolution 1935 greek coup attempt spanish civil war 1944 icelandic constitutional referendum 1946 italian institutional referendum egyptian revolution of 1952 14 july revolution 1960 south african republic referendum north yemen civil war zanzibar revolution 1969 libyan revolution 1970 cambodian coup d état metapolitefsi 1974 greek republic referendum iranian revolution 1987 fijian coups d état 1993 brazilian constitutional referendum nepalese civil war barbadian republic proclamation national variants antigua and barbuda australia bahamas barbados canada ireland jamaica japan morocco netherlands new zealand norway spain catalonia sweden united kingdom scotland wales united states republic days armenia azerbaijan china iceland india iran italy kazakhstan malta moldova nepal niger north korea north macedonia pakistan philippines taiwan turkey related topics classical radicalism common good communitarianism consul criticism of monarchy egalitarianism the emperor s new clothes jacobinism liberalism list of monarchy referendums list of republics monarchism peasant republic primus inter pares republic without republicans republican empire republican party politics portal v t e the revolution s end date is generally given as 11 august 1919 the day the weimar constitution was adopted but in many ways the revolution remained incomplete it failed to resolve the fracture in the left between moderate socialists and communists while anti democratic voices from the imperial government remained in positions of power the weimar republic was from its birth under great pressure from both those on the left and the right who sought to undermine and replace it in the end the far right was successful and the weimar republic came to an end with the ascent of hitler and the national socialist party background events world war i world war i brought out serious weaknesses in the german empire s social and political structures when hostilities started in 1914 the german government portrayed the war as defensive and all of germany s political parties including the left wing social democratic party spd threw their support behind it with a pledge of intra party peace burgfriedenspolitik 4 5 the spirit of 1914 the initial enthusiasm for the war that affected many but by no means all germans waned as the expected quick victory failed to materialize the allied blockade of germany which lasted from 1914 to 1919 cut off imported foodstuffs and led to widespread hunger as early as the turnip winter of 1916 17 profiteering skyrocketed with the emergence of a large black market inflation rose rapidly and class antagonisms increased the growing discontent affected the bourgeoisie as well as workers and the pan germans and others on the right began to blame jews for the problems 6 the hindenburg programme an armaments and economic policy begun in late 1916 by the supreme army command ohl in order to increase munitions output was seen by the left as worker exploitation despite some important concessions to them 7 significant labour strikes many centred in the armaments industry took place beginning in 1916 and culminated in the huge january 1918 strike outwardly a demand for better food rations it was also a mass worker protest against the war 8 9 in a sign of the growing social divide the prominent lutheran pastor bruno doehring anticipated the stab in the back myth when he accused the january strikers of falling on the frontline soldiers from behind 10 the german fatherland party a populist pro victory movement founded in september 1917 claimed a membership of over one million by july 1918 11 after russia pulled out of the war the fatherland party fed an annexationist fever for lands in the east among the conservative elite 12 political weaknesses in the german empire emerged along with the war s social divisions under the burgfriede the reichstag met only irregularly and then usually to do little more than approve additional war funding emperor wilhelm ii had not played a major role in german politics since the daily telegraph affair in 1908 yet he remained technically the supreme commander of the military it was able to step in to fill political voids because the imperial constitution did not define or put limits on its power in 1916 generals paul von hindenburg and erich ludendorff used their positions in the ohl to become in effect an ersatz monarchy in july 1917 they were able to force out long time chancellor theobald von bethmann hollweg who saw the necessity for political reforms in light of the changed domestic situation and replace him with a conservative of their own choice georg michaelis 13 less than a week later the reichstag passed a resolution calling for a negotiated peace without annexations but it was rejected by the military and the conservative parties and ignored by the allies 14 the war also led to a split in the spd the largest political party in germany which had taken 35 of the national vote and 110 seats in the last imperial reichstag elected in 1912 15 because of increasing intra party conflicts centering around the members who opposed the war party leadership under friedrich ebert expelled them from the party in january 1917 the spartacists were among the expellees who founded the anti war independent social democratic party uspd under the leadership of hugo haase on 6 april 1917 after that point the spd was officially renamed the majority social democratic party of germany mspd although it was still generally referred to as the spd 16 the uspd called for an immediate end to the war and a further democratisation of germany 17 end of the war impact of the russian revolution further information russian revolution in april 1917 the german government facilitated vladimir lenin s return to russia from his exile in switzerland in the hope that he would weaken the tsarist regime and its conduct of the war 18 after the 1917 october revolution that put lenin and the bolsheviks in power many in both russia and germany expected that soviet russia would attempt to foment a communist revolution in germany for germany s far left it provided hope for its own success but for the moderate socialists and the middle and upper classes it was a source of fear that the kind of bloody civil war that was occurring in russia could also break out in germany 19 the moderate spd leadership consequently shifted away from the party s official stance as revolutionary socialists otto braun clarified the spd s position in an article titled the bolsheviks and us die bolschewiki und wir in the party newspaper vorwärts of 15 february 1918 20 socialism cannot be erected on bayonets and machine guns if it is to last it must be realised with democratic means therefore we must draw a thick visible dividing line between ourselves and the bolsheviks 21 on 3 march 1918 the newly established soviet government signed the treaty of brest litovsk with germany to end russia s involvement in the war the terms of the treaty under which russia lost 34 of its population 54 of its industrial land 89 of its coalfields and 26 of its railways 22 were arguably harsher for the russians than the later treaty of versailles would be for the germans 23 brest litovsk revived the german people s hopes for a final victory in the west but social tensions increased when the foodstuffs expected from the eastern regions did not arrive and the shock of the final defeat that came six months later was that much worse because of the raised expectations 24 25 military collapse following the allied breakthrough at the battle of amiens on 8 august 1918 ludendorff s black day of the german army military morale began to deteriorate rapidly troops increasingly refused to obey orders deserted and voluntarily surrendered to the enemy ludendorff later wrote in his war memoirs retreating troops passing by a fresh division that was fighting bravely called out strike breakers and you re dragging out the war 26 the collapse of military morale was echoed in the civilian population a reichstag representative from baden reported in late september that many southern germans felt enormous bitterness against prussia not against the prussian people but against the junkers and the military caste the dominant feeling among us is that prussia must fail and if prussia does not fail germany will fail because of prussia 27 erich ludendorff in 1918 his calculated shifting of responsibility for the war s loss from the army to the civilian government gave rise to the stab in the bac...