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e made on 7 april 1933 49 as a preface to this action hitler decreed 1 may as national labour day to celebrate german workers a move the trade union leaders welcomed with their trade union flags waving hitler gave a rousing speech to the 1 5 million people assembled on berlin s tempelhofer feld that was nationally broadcast during which he extolled the nation s revival and working class solidarity 50 on the following day the newly formed gestapo officers who had been shadowing some 58 trade union leaders arrested them wherever they could find them many in their homes 51 meanwhile the sa and police occupied trade union headquarters arrested functionaries confiscated their property and assets all by design so as to be replaced on 12 may by the german labour front daf a nazi organisation placed under the leadership of robert ley 52 for their part this was the first time the gestapo operated under its new name since its 26 april 1933 founding in prussia 51 implications of the nuremberg laws the nuremberg laws of september 1935 materially transformed the scope of gestapo enforcement by dramatically expanding the range of denunciable behavior even expressions of sympathy toward jews or the mere appearance of social proximity became actionable under the new legislation 53 popular responses across germany ranged from enthusiastic endorsement to passive accommodation but the practical consequence was uniform the laws made it considerably easier for private individuals to weaponize the gestapo against neighbours competitors or former associates irrespective of their own ideological disposition 54 religious dissent many parts of germany where religious dissent existed upon the nazi seizure of power saw a rapid transformation a change as noted by the gestapo in conservative towns such as würzburg where people acquiesced to the regime either through accommodation collaboration or simple compliance 55 increasing religious objections to nazi policies led the gestapo to carefully monitor church organisations for the most part members of the church did not offer political resistance but simply wanted to ensure that organizational doctrine remained intact 56 however the nazi regime sought to suppress any source of ideology other than its own and set out to muzzle or crush the churches in the so called kirchenkampf when church leaders clergy voiced their misgiving about the euthanasia program and nazi racial policies hitler intimated that he considered them traitors to the people and went so far as to call them the destroyers of germany 57 the extreme anti semitism and neo pagan heresies of the nazis caused some christians to outright resist 58 and pope pius xi to issue the encyclical mit brennender sorge denouncing nazism and warning catholics against joining or supporting the party some pastors like the protestant clergyman dietrich bonhoeffer paid for their opposition with their lives 59 b in an effort to counter the strength and influence of spiritual resistance nazi records reveal that the gestapo s referat b1 monitored the activities of bishops very closely instructing that agents be set up in every diocese that the bishops reports to the vatican should be obtained and that the bishops areas of activity must be found out deans were to be targeted as the eyes and ears of the bishops and a vast network established to monitor the activities of ordinary clergy the importance of this enemy is such that inspectors of security police and of the security service will make this group of people and the questions discussed by them their special concern 61 in dachau the official history 1933 1945 paul berben wrote that clergy were watched closely and frequently denounced arrested and sent to nazi concentration camps one priest was imprisoned in dachau for having stated that there were good folk in england too another suffered the same fate for warning a girl who wanted to marry an s s man after abjuring the catholic faith yet another because he conducted a service for a deceased communist others were arrested simply on the basis of being suspected of activities hostile to the state or that there was reason to suppose that his dealings might harm society 62 over 2 700 catholic protestant and orthodox clergy were imprisoned at dachau alone after heydrich who was staunchly anti catholic and anti christian was assassinated in prague his successor ernst kaltenbrunner relaxed some of the policies and then disbanded department ivb religious opponents of the gestapo 63 homosexuality violence and arrest were not confined to that opposing political parties membership in trade unions or those with dissenting religious opinions but also homosexuality it was viewed negatively by hitler 64 homosexuals were correspondingly considered a threat to the volksgemeinschaft national community 65 from the nazis rise to national power in 1933 the number of court verdicts against homosexuals steadily increased and only declined once the second world war started 64 in 1934 a special gestapo office was set up in berlin to deal with homosexuality 66 despite male homosexuality being considered a greater danger to national survival lesbianism was likewise viewed as unacceptable deemed gender nonconformity and a number of individual reports on lesbians can be found in gestapo files 67 c between 1933 and 1935 some 4 000 men were arrested between 1936 and 1939 another 30 000 men were convicted 68 if homosexuals showed any signs of sympathy to the nazis identified racial enemies they were considered an even greater danger 69 according to gestapo case files the majority of those arrested for homosexuality were males between eighteen and twenty five years of age 66 student opposition between june 1942 and march 1943 student protests were calling for an end to the nazi regime these included the non violent resistance of hans and sophie scholl two leaders of the white rose student group 70 however resistance groups and those who were in moral or political opposition to the nazis were stalled by the fear of reprisals from the gestapo fearful of an internal overthrow the forces of the gestapo were unleashed on the opposition groups like the white rose and others such as the edelweiss pirates and the swing youth were placed under close gestapo observation some participants were sent to concentration camps leading members of the most famous of these groups the white rose were arrested by the police and turned over to the gestapo for several leaders the punishment was death 71 during the first five months of 1943 the gestapo arrested thousands suspected of resistance activities and carried out numerous executions student opposition leaders were executed in late february and a major opposition organisation the oster circle was destroyed in april 1943 72 efforts to resist the nazi regime amounted to very little and had only minor chances of success particularly since a broad percentage of the german people did not support such actions 73 general opposition and military conspiracy between 1934 and 1938 opponents of the nazi regime and their fellow travellers began to emerge among the first to speak out were religious dissenters but following in their wake were educators aristocratic businessmen office workers teachers and others from nearly every walk of life 74 most people quickly learned that open opposition was dangerous since gestapo informants and agents were widespread however a significant number of them still worked against the national socialist government 75 in may 1935 the gestapo broke up and arrested members of the markwitz circle a group of former socialists in contact with otto strasser who sought hitler s downfall 76 from the mid 1930s into the early 1940s various groups made up of communists idealists working class people and far right conservative opposition organisations covertly fought against hitler s government and several of them fomented plots that included hitler s assassination nearly all of them including the römer group robby group solf circle schwarze reichswehr the party of the radical middle class jungdeutscher orden schwarze front and stahlhelm were either discovered or infiltrated by the gestapo this led to corresponding arrests being sent to concentration camps and execution 77 one of the methods employed by the gestapo to contend with these resistance factions was protective detention which facilitated the process in expediting dissenters to concentration camps and against which there was no legal defence 78 photograph from 1939 shown from left to right are franz josef huber arthur nebe heinrich himmler reinhard heydrich and heinrich müller planning the investigation of the bomb assassination attempt on adolf hitler on 8 november 1939 in munich early efforts to resist the nazis with aid from abroad were hindered when the opposition s peace feelers to the western allies did not meet with success this was partly because of the venlo incident of 9 november 1939 79 in which sd and gestapo agents posing as anti nazis in the netherlands kidnapped two british secret intelligence service sis officers after having lured them to a meeting to discuss peace terms this prompted winston churchill to ban any further contact with the german opposition 80 later the british and americans did not want to deal with anti nazis because they were fearful that the soviet union would believe they were attempting to make deals behind their back d the german opposition was in an unenviable position by the late spring and early summer of 1943 on one hand it was next to impossible for them to overthrow hitler and the party on the other the allied demand for an unconditional surrender meant no opportunity for a compromise peace which left the military and conservative aristocrats who opposed the regime no option in their eyes other than continuing the military struggle 82 despite the fear of the gestapo after mass arrests and executions in the spring the opposition still plotted and planned one of the more famous schemes operation valkyrie involved a number of senior german officers and was carried out by colonel claus schenk graf von stauffenberg in an attempt to assassinate hitler stauffenberg planted a bomb underneath a conference table inside the wolf s lair field headquarters 83 known as the 20 july plot this assassination attempt failed and hitler was only slightly injured reports indicate that the gestapo was caught unaware of this plot as they did not have sufficient protections in place at the appropriate locations nor did they take any preventative steps 84 85 stauffenberg and his group were shot on 21 july 1944 meanwhile his fellow conspirators were rounded up by the gestapo and sent to a concentration camp thereafter there was a show trial overseen by roland freisler followed by their execution 86 some germans were convinced that it was their duty to apply all possible expedients to end the war as quickly as possible sabotage efforts were undertaken by members of the abwehr military intelligence leadership as they recruited people known to oppose the nazi regime 87 the gestapo cracked down ruthlessly on dissidents in germany just as they did everywhere else opposition became more difficult arrests torture and executions were common terror against state enemies had become a way of life to such a degree that the gestapo s presence and methods were eventually normalised in the minds of people living in nazi germany 88 organisation interior of the gestapo headquarters in january 1933 hermann göring hitler s minister without portfolio was appointed the head of the prussian police and began filling the political and intelligence units of the prussian secret police with nazi party members 89 a year after the organisation s inception göring wrote in a british publication about having created the organisation on his own initiative and how he was chiefly responsible for the elimination of the marxist and communist threat to germany and prussia 90 describing the activities of the organisation göring boasted about the utter ruthlessness required for germany s recovery the establishment of concentration camps for that purpose and even went on to claim that excesses were committed in the beginning recounting how beatings took place here and there 91 on 26 april 1933 he reorganised the force s amt iii as the gestapa better known by the sobriquet gestapo 92 a secret state police intended to serve the nazi cause 93 less than two weeks later in early may 1933 the gestapo moved into their berlin headquarters at prinz albrecht straße 8 94 as a result of its 1936 merger with the kripo national criminal police to form sub units of the sicherheitspolizei sipo security police the gestapo was officially classified as a government agency himmler s subsequent appointment to chef der deutschen polizei chief of german police and status as reichsführer ss made him independent of interior minister wilhelm frick s nominal control 26 27 the sipo was placed under the direct command of reinhard heydrich who was already chief of the nazi party s intelligence service the sicherheitsdienst sd 26 the idea was to fully identify and integrate the party agency sd with the state agency sipo most sipo members joined the ss and held a rank in both organisations nevertheless in practice there was jurisdictional overlap and operational conflict between the sd and gestapo 95 heinrich müller chief of the gestapo 1939 1945 in september 1939 the sipo and sd were merged into the newly created reichssicherheitshauptamt rsha reich security main office both the gestapo and kripo became distinct departments within the rsha 33 although the sicherheitspolizei was officially disbanded the term sipo was figuratively used to describe any rsha personnel throughout the remainder of the war in lieu of naming convention changes the original construct of the sipo gestapo and kripo cannot be fully comprehended as discrete entities since they ultimately formed a conglomerate in which each was wedded to each other and the ss through its security service the sd 96 the creation of the rsha represented the formalisation at the top level of the relationship under which the sd served as the intelligence agency for the security police a similar co ordination existed in the local offices within germany and areas which were incorporated within the reich for the purpose of civil administration local offices of the gestapo criminal police and sd were formally separate they were subject to co ordination by inspectors of the security police and sd on the staffs of the local higher ss and police leaders however and one of the principal functions of the local sd units was to serve as the intelligence agency for the local gestapo units in the occupied territories the formal relationship between local units of the gestapo criminal police and sd was slightly closer 97 the gestapo became known as rsha amt iv department or office iv with heinrich mül...