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e voice instead of the active 8 some languages such as english and spanish use a periphrastic passive voice that is it is not a single word form but rather a construction making use of other word forms specifically it is made up of a form of the auxiliary verb to be and a past participle of the main verb which carries the lexical content of the predicate in other languages such as latin the passive voice for some tenses is simply marked on the verb by inflection librum legit he reads the book liber legitur the book is read passives mark this voice in english syntactically as well which often involves subject object inversion and the use of by sentence 2 is an example of passive voice where something the castles has been notionally acted upon by someone roger bigod 2 the castles were seen by roger bigod antipassive voice edit main article antipassive voice the antipassive voice deletes or demotes the object of transitive verbs and promotes the actor to an intransitive subject this voice is very common among ergative absolutive languages which may feature passive voices as well but also occurs among nominative accusative languages middle voice edit further information deponent verb reflexive verb mediopassive voice and anticausative verb some languages such as albanian bengali fula tamil sanskrit icelandic swedish and ancient greek have a middle voice which is a set of inflections or constructions which is to some extent different from both the active and passive voices the subject of such middle voice is like the subject of active voice as well as the subject of passive voice in that it performs an action and is also affected by that action 8 another difference between middle voice and the other two grammatical voices is that there are middle marked verbs for which no corresponding active verb form exists 9 in some cases the middle voice is any grammatical option where the subject of a material process cannot be categorized as either an actor someone doing something or a goal that at which the actor aims their work for example while the passive voice expresses a medium goal being affected by an external agent actor as in sentence 4 the middle voice expresses a medium undergoing change without any external agent as in sentence 5 in english though the inflection for middle voice and active voice are the same for these cases they differ in whether or not they permit the expression of the agent argument in an oblique by phrase pp thus while the by phrase is possible with passive voice as in sentence 6 it is not possible with middle voice as shown by the ill formed sentence 7 4 the casserole was cooked in the oven passive voice 5 the casserole cooked in the oven middle voice 6 the casserole was cooked in the oven by lucy passive voice 7 the casserole cooked in the oven by lucy by phrase ungrammatical when used with middle voice asterisk indicates ungrammaticality in classical greek the middle voice is often used for material processes where the subject is both the actor the one doing the action and the medium that which is undergoing change as in the man got a shave opposing both active and passive voices where the medium is the goal as in the barber shaved the man and the man got shaved by the barber finally it can occasionally be used in a causative sense such as the father causes his son to be set free or the father ransoms his son in english there is no verb form for the middle voice though some uses may be classified by traditional grammarians as middle voice often resolved via a reflexive pronoun as in fred shaved which may be expanded to fred shaved himself contrast with active fred shaved john or passive john was shaved by fred this need not be reflexive as in my clothes soaked in detergent overnight in english it is impossible to tell from the morphology whether the verb in sentence 8 is an active voice unaccusative verb or a middle voice anticausative verb with active morphology 10 since middle voice reflexives and dispositional middles are found in english with active morphology by looking at sentence 9 it can be assumed that at least some middle voice anticausatives with active morphology exist as well 11 8 the window broke from the pressure by itself 9 this book sells well english used to have a distinct form called the passival which was displaced over the early 19th century by the progressive passive and is no longer used in modern english 12 13 in the passival one might say the house is building which may today be rendered instead as the house is being built likewise the meal is eating which is now the meal is being eaten the similar fred is shaving and the meal is cooking remain grammatical it is suggested that the progressive passive was popularized by the romantic poets and is connected with bristol usage 12 14 many deponent verbs in latin i e verbs passive in form but active in meaning are descendants of the proto indo european middle voice 15 other voice contrasts edit some languages have even more grammatical voices for example classical mongolian features five voices active passive causative reciprocal and cooperative there are also constructions in some languages that appear to change the valence of a verb but in fact do not so called hierarchical or inversion languages are of this sort their agreement system will be sensitive to an external person or animacy hierarchy or a combination of both 1 2 3 or anim inan and so forth e g in meskwaki an algonquian language verbs inflect for both subject and object but agreement markers do not have inherent values for these rather a third marker the direct or inverse marker indicates the proper interpretation a ne wa pam e w a ne 1 wa pam look at e dir w 3 a 3 sg ne wa pam e w a 1 look at dir 3 3 sg i am looking at him b ne wa pam ekw w a ne 1 wa pam look at ekw inv w 3 a 3 sg ne wa pam ekw w a 1 look at inv 3 3 sg he is looking at me some scholars notably rhodes have analyzed this as a kind of obligatory passivization dependent on animacy while others have claimed it is not a voice at all but rather see inversion as another type of alignment parallel to nominative accusative ergative absolutive split s and fluid s 5 alignments voices in topic prominent languages edit this section has an unclear citation style the references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of citation and footnoting january 2021 learn how and when to remove this message chinese edit in general the grammar of standard chinese both including mandarin and cantonese shares many features with other varieties of chinese however there are still some differences between the different varieties mandarin edit active voice in mandarin edit mandarin active voice sentences have the same verb phrase structure as english active voice sentences there is a common active construction in mandarin called ba 把 construction ba is a coverb not a preposition it is a three place predicate that subcategorizes for a subject an object and a vp complement 16 a 他 ta he 把 ba act 橘子 juzi orange 剥了 bo le peeled prf 皮 pi peel 他 把 橘子 剥了 皮 ta ba juzi bo le pi he act orange peeled prf peel he peeled the orange skin mandarin active sentence a this ba construction is also a direct opposition of active voice in passive voice in mandarin i e ba construction active voice vs bei construction passive voice the following sentence b is in contrast to sentence a b 橘子 juzi orange 被 bei pass 他 ta he 剥了 bo le peeled prf 皮 pi peel 橘子 被 他 剥了 皮 juzi bei ta bo le pi orange pass he peeled prf peel the orange was peeled by him mandarin active sentence b both a and b are adapted from her o 2009 passive voice in mandarin edit topic prominent languages like mandarin tend not to employ the passive voice as frequently in general mandarin used to be best analyzed using middle voice but mandarin speakers can construct a passive voice by using the coverb 被 bèi and rearranging the usual word order 17 for example this sentence using active voice the first line is in traditional chinese while the second is simplified chinese 一條 一条 yī tiáo α 狗 狗 gǒu dog 咬了 咬了 yǎo le bite prf 這個 这个 zhège this 男人 男人 nánrén man 一條 狗 咬了 這個 男人 一条 狗 咬了 这个 男人 yī tiáo gǒu yǎo le zhège nánrén α dog bite prf this man a dog has bitten this man corresponds to the following sentence using passive voice the agent phrase is optional 這個 这个 zhège this 男人 男人 nánrén man 被 被 bèi pass 狗 狗 gǒu dog 咬了 咬了 yǎo le bite prf 這個 男人 被 狗 咬了 这个 男人 被 狗 咬了 zhège nánrén bèi gǒu yǎo le this man pass dog bite prf this man has been bitten by a dog in addition through the addition of the auxiliary verb to be 是 shì the passive voice is frequently used to emphasize the identity of the actor this example places emphasis on the dog presumably as opposed to some other animal 這個 这个 zhège this 男人 男人 nánrén man 是 是 shì to be 被 被 bèi pass 狗 狗 gǒu dog 咬 咬 yǎo bite 的 的 de suffix 這個 男人 是 被 狗 咬 的 这个 男人 是 被 狗 咬 的 zhège nánrén shì bèi gǒu yǎo de this man to be pass dog bite suffix this man has been bitten by a dog mandarin also has an object retaining passive which contains both the object and the topic mostly the possessor of the object 他 他 tā he 被 被 bèi pass 小偷 小偷 xiǎotou thief 偷了 偷了 tōu le steal prf 錢包 钱包 qiánbāo wallet 他 被 小偷 偷了 錢包 他 被 小偷 偷了 钱包 tā bèi xiǎotou tōu le qiánbāo he pass thief steal prf wallet his wallet was stolen by a thief 被 bèi as a passive marker is a relatively new addition to the language introduced as part of the early 20th century language reforms that also added gender specific pronouns such as 他 她 and 你 妳 and culminated in attempts to romanize chinese entirely there is a typical passive construction in mandarin namely bei construction it is commonly used to indicate result direction location frequency duration manner and appearance 18 similar to english bei construction can also be analysed by a movement which is locally restricted the subject of the bei clause is included in the complement clause where the passivized object controls the verb 19 classically 被 marked an adversative mood indicating that something bad had happened even today the following sentence is perfectly acceptable in speech 蛋糕 蛋糕 dangao cake 吃了 吃了 chi le eat prf 蛋糕 吃了 蛋糕 吃了 dangao chi le cake eat prf the cake was eaten recent development of bèi construction recently more syntacticians investigated passive voice in mandarin they discovered that passive voice in mandarin is heavily dependent on the context of the sentence rather than the grammatical forms 18 therefore passive voice can be marked e g by the most broadly used passive marker bèi 被 mentioned above or unmarked see the notional passive section below in both speech and writing those sentences have a passive marker called the long passive while the ones that do not require a passive marker are called short passive 19 here are examples for long passive and short passive the long passive bei np vp a 张三 zhangsan zhangsan 被 bei pass 李四 lisi lisi 打 da hit 了 le prf 张三 被 李四 打 了 zhangsan bei lisi da le zhangsan pass lisi hit prf zhangsan was hit by lisi the short passive bei vp b 张三 zhangsan zhangsan 被 bei pass 打 da hit 了 le prf 张三 被 打 了 zhangsan bei da le zhangsan pass hit prf zhangsan was hit both examples are adapted from huang c j liu n 2014 we can see from the examples above the difference between long passive and short passive depends on whether the agent phrase is presented or not bei construction was not often used in old chinese but it is widely used in modern chinese the appearance of bei construction marks that modern chinese is undergoing a new cycle of change old chinese was considerably synthetic and has been gradually changed to analyticity later its development peaked during tang song dynasties nowadays in modern chinese it is mainly analytic but also shows forward tendency toward synthesis 20 here are some recent theories that syntacticians have proposed ting s theory 1998 edit ting 1998 proposed that bei is acting as a verb and it is widely accepted so far ting stated that bei construction is not used uniformly in all passive contexts in mandarin rather three types of bei sentences must be introduced the main distinction is discovered in a movement and lexical passive compound verb to some extent his theory was also supported by yip et al 2016 where they also proposed three different forms of passive mandarin ting s claims were based on his investigation of post verbal overt pronominal object locality of selection occurrence of the particle suo 所 in bei construction and the intervention of adverbs within the bei v compound co verb he believed that bei construction is presented in three types two of them have different selectional properties and the other one is lexically derived as bei v compound here is an example of showing a sentence having different selectional properties in its subject and object 李四 lisi lisi 被 bei pass 张三 zhangsan zhangsan 派 pai sent 我 wo i 抓走了 zhua zou le catch prf 李四 被 张三 派 我 抓走了 lisi bei zhangsan pai wo zhua zou le lisi pass zhangsan sent i catch prf lisi was affected by zhangsan s sending me to catch him lisi 1 bei zhangsan pai wo 2 cp tp pro 2 zhua zou le e 1 this example is adapted from ting j 1998 huang and liu s theory 2014 edit huang and liu 2014 argued that bei construction is not a special construction that involves the passivization of intransitive verbs they believe that what is passivized isn t the vp itself in bei vp construction but actually a null light verb with a causative putative or activity predicate that takes vp as its complement or adjunct in their analysis vp part in bei vp construction acquires its categorical feature by an agreement relation with a category creating light verb and it serves as the complement or adjunct of that light verb what makes it different from other constructions is that it doesn t have grammatical active sources null light verb constructions are abundant in old chinese 20 the head of this construction is a null light verb with the semantics of cause and do referring to several causative or executive events huang and liu s theory of bei construction can explain the usage of bei in both modern chinese and old chinese yip s theory 2016 edit according to yip et al 2016 there are three forms in passive voice depending on the tone and emphasis they are notional passive formal passive and lexical passive notional passive edit no formal passive marker is needed and carries an expository tone it is the most common form of passive voice in mandarin and is extremely colloquial passive marker is excluded in notional passive because the sentence relies on the hearer s common sense or their knowledge of the world thus this passive voice is expressed implicitly furthermore notional passive sentences can be representing either positive or negative meanings here is an example of notional passive 问题 wenti problem 解决 jiejue solve 了 le prf 问题 解决 了 wenti jiejue le problem solve prf problem has been solved mandarin notional passive in other voices in mandarin object transitive ve...