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arch search appearance donate create account log in personal tools donate create account log in contents move to sidebar hide top 1 conceptualization 2 notation 3 glyphs 4 types of grapheme 5 relationship with phonemes 6 see also 7 references 8 external links toggle the table of contents grapheme 66 languages afrikaans alemannisch العربية asturianu azərbaycanca башҡортса беларуская български brezhoneg català کوردی čeština dansk deutsch esperanto español eesti euskara فارسی suomi français galego gaelg עברית hrvatski kreyòl ayisyen magyar bahasa indonesia ido italiano 日本語 jawa ქართული қазақша 한국어 кыргызча lietuvių latviešu nederlands norsk nynorsk norsk bokmål occitan livvinkarjala ਪੰਜਾਬੀ polski português română русский සිංහල simple english slovenčina slovenščina српски srpski svenska தமிழ் ไทย toki pona türkçe українська اردو oʻzbekcha ўзбекча vèneto 吴语 閩南語 bân lâm gí 粵語 中文 edit links article talk english read edit view history tools tools move to sidebar hide actions read edit view history general what links here related changes upload file permanent link page information cite this page get shortened url switch to legacy parser print export download as pdf printable version in other projects wikimedia commons wikifunctions wikidata item appearance move to sidebar hide from wikipedia the free encyclopedia smallest functional written unit not to be confused with graphene graphane or graphyne this section needs more citations please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed find sources grapheme news newspapers books scholar jstor december 2022 learn how and when to remove this message various glyphs representing instances of the lower case letter a considered to be allographs of the same grapheme this page uses ipa notation for orthographic or other linguistic analysis for the meaning of how and are used here see this page part of a series on reading learning to read reading readiness vocabulary development vocabulary learning scientific theories and models dual route theory simple view of reading science of reading scarborough s reading rope the active view of reading model cognitive processes comprehension phonemic awareness phonological awareness subvocalization word recognition reading instruction analytic phonics basal reader concept oriented directed listening and thinking activity guided reading independent reading literature circle phonics reciprocal teaching structured word inquiry sustained silent reading synthetic phonics whole language reading rate fluency slow reading speed reading words per minute readability automatic assessment legibility readability test reading differences and disabilities dyslexia hyperlexia reading disability reading for special needs language alphabetic principle braille dolch word list grapheme history of printing language morpheme orthography phoneme sight word vocabulary written language writing writing system literacy literacy rate critical reading close reading distant reading family literacy functional illiteracy great books literary criticism literature children s v t e in linguistics a grapheme is the smallest functional unit of a writing system 1 the word grapheme is derived from ancient greek s gráphō write and the suffix eme by analogy with phoneme and other emic units the study of graphemes is called graphemics the concept of a grapheme is abstract it is similar to the notion of a character in computing a specific geometric shape that represents any particular grapheme in a given typeface is called a glyph in orthographic and linguistic notation a particular glyph character is represented in graphemic notation by enclosing it within angle brackets e g a conceptualization edit there are two main opposing grapheme concepts 2 in the so called referential conception graphemes are interpreted as the smallest units of writing that correspond with sounds more accurately phonemes in this concept the sh in the written english word shake would be a grapheme because it represents the phoneme ʃ this referential concept is linked to the dependency hypothesis that claims that writing merely depicts speech by contrast the analogical concept defines graphemes analogously to phonemes i e via written minimal pairs such as shake vs snake in this example h and n are graphemes because they distinguish two words this analogical concept is associated with the autonomy hypothesis which holds that writing is a system in its own right and should be studied independently from speech both concepts have weaknesses 3 some models adhere to both concepts simultaneously by including two individual units 4 which are given names such as phonological fit grapheme for the grapheme according to the referential concept sh in shake and graphemic grapheme for the grapheme according to the analogical concept h in shake 5 in newer concepts in which the grapheme is interpreted semiotically as a dyadic linguistic sign 6 it is defined as a minimal unit of writing that is both lexically distinctive and correspondent to a linguistic unit phoneme syllable or morpheme 7 notation edit further information international phonetic alphabet brackets and transcription delimiters graphemes are often notated within angle brackets e g a 8 this is analogous to the slash notation a used for phonemes analogous to the square bracket notation a used for phones glyphs are sometimes denoted with vertical lines e g ɑ 9 glyphs edit main articles glyph and allograph this section does not cite any sources please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed february 2026 learn how and when to remove this message in the same way that the surface forms of phonemes are speech sounds or phones and different phones representing the same phoneme are called allophones the surface forms of graphemes are glyphs sometimes graphs namely concrete written representations of symbols and different glyphs representing the same grapheme are called allographs thus a grapheme can be regarded as an abstraction of a collection of glyphs that are all functionally equivalent for example in written english or other languages using the latin alphabet the lowercase latin letter a can appear in different typographic forms since substitution of one form for another usually does not change the meaning of a word they are considered to be allographs of the same grapheme which can be written a similarly the grapheme corresponding to arabic numeral zero has a unique semantic identity and unicode value u 0030 but has variations such as how circular it is drawn or even the slashed zero form italic and bold face forms are also allographic as is the variation seen in serif as in times new roman versus sans serif as in helvetica forms there is some disagreement as to whether capital and lower case letters are allographs or distinct graphemes capitals are generally found in certain triggering contexts that do not change the meaning of a word a proper name for example or at the beginning of a sentence or all caps in a newspaper headline in other contexts capitalization can determine meaning compare for example polish and polish the former is a language the latter is for shining shoes some linguists consider digraphs like the sh in ship to be distinct graphemes but these are generally analyzed as sequences of graphemes non stylistic ligatures however such as æ are distinct graphemes as are various letters with distinctive diacritics such as ç identical glyphs may not always represent the same grapheme for example the three letters a а and α appear identical but each has a different meaning in order they are the latin letter a the cyrillic capital letter a and the greek letter alpha each has its own code point in unicode u 0041 a latin capital letter a u 0410 а cyrillic capital letter a and u 0391 α greek capital letter alpha types of grapheme edit this section needs more citations please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed find sources grapheme news newspapers books scholar jstor december 2022 learn how and when to remove this message the principal types of graphemes are logograms more accurately termed morphograms 10 which represent words or morphemes for example chinese characters the ampersand representing the word and arabic numerals syllabic characters representing syllables as in japanese kana and alphabetic letters corresponding roughly to phonemes see next section for a full discussion of the different types see writing system functional classification there are additional graphemic components used in writing such as punctuation marks mathematical symbols word dividers such as the space and other typographic symbols ancient logographic scripts often used silent determinatives to disambiguate the meaning of a neighboring non silent word relationship with phonemes edit main article phonemic orthography as mentioned in the previous section in languages that use alphabetic writing systems many of the graphemes stand in principle for the phonemes significant sounds of the language in practice however the orthographies of such languages entail at least a certain amount of deviation from the ideal of exact grapheme phoneme correspondence a phoneme may be represented by a multigraph sequence of more than one grapheme as the digraph sh represents a single sound in english and sometimes a single grapheme may represent more than one phoneme as with the russian letter я or the spanish c some graphemes may not represent any sound at all like the b in english debt or the h in all spanish words containing the said letter and often the rules of correspondence between graphemes and phonemes become complex or irregular particularly as a result of historical sound changes that are not necessarily reflected in spelling shallow orthographies such as those of standard spanish and finnish have relatively regular though not always one to one correspondence between graphemes and phonemes while those of french and english have much less regular correspondence and are known as deep orthographies multigraphs representing a single phoneme are normally treated as combinations of separate letters not as graphemes in their own right however in some languages a multigraph may be treated as a single unit for the purposes of collation for example in a czech dictionary the section for words that start with ch comes after that for h 11 for more examples see alphabetical order language specific conventions see also edit character computing symbols encoded in computers to make text grapheme color synesthesia synesthesia that associates numbers or letters with colors representative glyph non specific archetype to represent a grapheme sign semiotics something that communicates meaning references edit coulmas f 1996 the blackwell encyclopedia of writing systems oxford blackwell p 174 kohrt m 1986 the term grapheme in the history and theory of linguistics in g augst ed new trends in graphemics and orthography berlin de gruyter pp 80 96 doi 10 1515 9783110867329 80 lockwood d g 2001 phoneme and grapheme how parallel can they be lacus forum 27 307 316 rezec o 2013 ein differenzierteres strukturmodell des deutschen schriftsystems linguistische berichte 234 pp 227 254 herrick e m 1994 of course a structural graphemics is possible lacus forum 21 pp 413 424 fedorova l 2013 the development of graphic representation in abugida writing the akshara s grammar lingua posnaniensis 55 2 pp 49 66 doi 10 2478 linpo 2013 0013 meletis d 2019 the grapheme as a universal basic unit of writing writing systems research doi 10 1080 17586801 2019 1697412 the cambridge encyclopedia of language second edition cambridge university press 1997 p 196 meletis dimitrios dürscheid christa 2022 writing systems and their use an overview of grapholinguistics de gruyter mouton p 64 isbn 978 3 110 75777 4 joyce t 2011 the significance of the morphographic principle for the classification of writing systems written language and literacy 14 1 pp 58 81 doi 10 1075 wll 14 1 04joy zeman dan czech alphabet code page keyboard and sorting order old site clsp jhu edu archived from the original on 15 april 2012 retrieved 31 march 2012 external links edit wikimedia commons has media related to graphemes the dictionary definition of grapheme at wiktionary v t e lexicology major terms lexical item lexicon lexis word elements chereme glyphs grapheme lemma lexeme morpheme phoneme seme sememe semantic relations antonymy hypernymy and hyponymy meronymy and holonymy idiom lexical semantics semantic network synonym troponymy functions function word headword fields controlled vocabulary english lexicology and lexicography international scientific vocabulary lexicographic error lexicographic information cost linguistic prescription morphology specialized lexicography linguistics portal v t e writing systems index of language articles overview language history of writing history of the alphabet graphemes scripts in unicode lists writing systems languages by writing system by first written account ancient languages corpuses by size undeciphered writing systems creators of writing systems types abjads abugidas alphabets featural ideogrammic logographic numeral phonogrammic pictographic semi syllabaries shorthand syllabaries current examples arabic brahmic canadian syllabics chinese cyrillic ethiopic greek hangul hebrew kana latin mongolian related topics in africa in southeast asia v t e types of writing systems overview history of writing grapheme lists writing systems undeciphered inventors constructed languages by writing system by first written accounts types abjads numerals aramaic hatran arabic elifba egyptian hieroglyphs elymaic hebrew ashuri cursive rashi solitreo tifinagh mandaic manichaean nabataean ancient north arabian paleo hebrew pahlavi book inscriptional inscriptional parthian psalter pegon phoenician pitman shorthand proto sinaitic punic samaritan south arabian zabur musnad sogdian syriac ʾesṭrangēlā serṭā maḏnḥāyā teeline shorthand ugaritic abugidas brahmic northern bengali assamese bhaiksuki brahmi script devanagari dogri gujarati gupta gurmukhi kaithi kalinga khema khojki khudabadi laṇḍā lepcha mahajani marchen meitei modi multani nagari nandinagari nepalese scripts bhujimol golmol himmol kummol kvemmol kurukh pachumol newar ranjana tamyig tirhuta limbu litumol odia karani ʼphags pa sharada siddhaṃ soyombo sylheti nagri takri tibetan uchen umê tocharian zanabazar square southern ahom balinese batak baybayin bhattiprolu buda buhid chakma cham fakkham grantha goykanadi hanunoo javanese kadamba kannada karen kawi khmer khom thai kulitan lanna langdi lao leke lontara bilang bilang makasar malayalam old maldivian dhives akuru eveyla akuru mon burmese pallava pyu saurashtra shan sinhala sukhothai sundanese old sundanese tagbanwa tai le ne...