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e motor mechanism of voice in this ape is adequate not only to the production of a considerable variety of sounds but also to definite articulations similar to those of man 11 but gua did not communicate using human words instead of the chimp copying the humans the kelloggs son donald started copying the chimp adopting gua s vocalizations donald would use food grunts for example when hungry shortly after the kelloggs made this observation the experiment was discontinued yerkes disapproved of winthrop s book about the gua experiment and had records of the project stricken from his orange park hub 12 after the kellogg study there were four similar research projects into cross fostering the most notable of these was conducted by keith and catherine hayes with their chimpanzee viki viki would lead people to places she wanted to go as well as move the hands of people onto objects she wanted them to manipulate she would rarely point to objects that she wanted instead she would make gestures for example when she wanted to help with ironing she would move her hand back and forth above the ironing board this experiment with viki would inspire other researchers to conduct similar experiments 13 but when it came to teaching viki to speak the hayes efforts were only marginally more effective than others who tried to teach chimps to talk after nearly seven years of intensive exposure to english viki spoke only four words mama papa cup and up 14 15 1960s 1980s sign language edit washoe and the gardners edit main article washoe chimpanzee in 1966 the husband and wife research team of beatrix t gardner and robert allen gardner initiated a new generation of language research after the failed efforts of teaching apes to speak the gardners wondered whether the issue was a motor deficiency rather than cognitive inability the couple had been watching film of viki the chimp involved in the early speech study and noticed that she was intelligible without sound she was making gestures with her hands as she tried to pronounce words 16 the gardners decided to test a chimpanzee s abilities with a gestural language american sign language asl they were not the first scientists to come up with this idea pepys advocated teaching sign language to chimps in the 17th century de la mettrie and monboddo suggested the same in the 18th and william wundt in the early 20th century 17 but the gardners were the first to conduct formal research into the matter the gardners secured a 10 month old chimpanzee they named washoe in june 1966 18 up to age 5 washoe lived in a trailer in the backyard of the gardner s home in reno nevada the gardners hired graduate students to work with washoe most notably roger fouts who later became washoe s primary caregiver no one around washoe was allowed to speak instead they were instructed to use signs from american sign language asl exclusively washoe s primary caregivers were not fluent in asl the gardners employed native asl speakers on subsequent chimp projects 19 the gardners tried to anticipate criticism of their work from the start a word would not be counted as part of washoe s vocabulary until she had used it appropriately and spontaneously at least once a day for 15 consecutive days penny patterson used this framework for her studies with gorilla koko as well at least initially 20 it proved to be a difficult benchmark to meet especially when it came to the vocabulary involving things not typically encountered daily horse pipe hankie 19 in addition the gardners set up a double blind testing apparatus for washoe and subsequent chimp language projects 14 the chimp was seated in front of a screen that was sheltered from human view one person would flash random slides for the ape to see another person who could not see the slides would record the ape s response and a third person viewing from a one way mirror in a separate room would independently record the chimp s response 21 two persons were employed to separately interpret washoe because of the inherent ambiguity of reading an ape s signs chimp hands and body are different than humans and the meaning of asl signs is shaped by their position and movement in space regarding one s body when the two interpretations were found to match each other as well as the picture that had been shown the sign was accepted as correct anything else was recorded as an error in his book next of kin roger fouts wrote that he sometimes found the errors more illuminating than correct responses 22 the double blind testing apparatus was set up to avoid unconscious bias particularly a clever hans effect 14 in which humans unwittingly tip off their animal subjects through body language facial expressions or other means tests showed washoe reliably used 85 signs singly and in combination with other words by her third year with the gardners the number of reliable signs rose to 132 later according to eugene linden an independent journalist who focused on ape language research she asked questions and used negatives no in combination with another word 23 when washoe was five the gardners arranged to send her to the university of oklahoma s institute of primate studies in norman oklahoma with roger fouts and deborah fouts the gardners continued to conduct sign language research on infant chimpanzees using moja pili tatu and dar in subsequent studies with these later projects the couple sought to improve on the methodology of project washoe by securing chimps immediately after birth employing fluent asl speakers providing the chimps with chimp siblings and iterating upon their language training techniques 14 24 washoe and roger fouts edit main article roger fouts the gardners were scientists schooled in behaviorism roger fouts came to the chimp language studies as an animal lover pursuing a career in child development these differing backgrounds corresponded with differing approaches the gardners initially wanted fouts and other grad students to strictly use methods of operant conditioning rewards and punishment to teach washoe but fouts believed that teaching a language was not the same as teaching a lab rat tricks he recalled according to behaviorism the combination of a hungry chimp and ready to dispense food should be the perfect opportunity for reinforcement and learning but the hungrier washoe was the quicker her signing deteriorated into pure repetition and finally outright begging 25 fouts believed that chimpanzees needed room to learn in manner similar to human children on their own timeline he considered direct instruction ineffective as it was often met with resistance the child not the parent drives the learning process argued fouts if you try to impose a rigid discipline while teaching a child or a chimp you are working against the boundless curiosity and need for relaxed play that make learning possible 25 though the gardners instituted skinnerian protocols in washoe s first year they began to see advantages to fouts approach acknowledging young chimpanzees and young children have a limited tolerance for school 25 but the issue exposed a key tension behind project washoe and similar language research to follow on one hand researchers needed a strict repetitive process with clinical double blind testing for their work to be accepted as science without such rigor the body of work became vulnerable to criticism on the other hand researchers need to recognize the apes emotional needs or they faced a different suite of problems the gardners fit more comfortably in the first camp focused on scientific rigor roger fouts and his wife deborah fit more in the latter later becoming advocates for animal rights and welfare but the tension proved unavoidable nim chimpsky edit main article nim chimpsky nim chimpsky in 1999 in 1973 herbert s terrace of columbia university set out to improve upon the washoe research using a chimp he named nim chimpsky a pun on linguist noam chomsky over the course of project nim the infant chimp was shuttled between locations and a revolving group of roughly 60 caregivers mostly students and volunteers few of whom were proficient in sign language 26 27 before he was 1 year old nim began fighting for dominance by biting his caregivers 28 the project was initially intended to last roughly 10 years 29 but after four years of research nim had become too difficult to manage and was returned to the institute for primate studies in oklahoma nim s chaotic upbringing documented in elizabeth hess s biography nim chimpsky the chimp who would be human negatively impacted not only his behavior but his performance on language related tasks even terrace acknowledged this problem noting that nim s emotional turmoil was a major obstacle in his progress 30 after sending nim back to oklahoma terrace reviewed his data and concluded that nim copied signs from his teachers to get a reward terrace argued that nim did not initiate conversation or create sentences terrace said that he had not noticed this throughout the duration of the study but only upon reviewing video tape 31 terrace ultimately became a popularly cited critic of ape language studies 32 koko edit main article koko gorilla in 1972 francine penny patterson inspired by a lecture she attended by allen and beatrix gardner 33 began a program to teach sign language to a lowlands gorilla named koko unlike the gardners she did not limit her english speech around koko koko mastered approximately 1 000 signs 34 before her death in 2018 but her well publicized achievements ignited significant controversy among scientists who questioned whether she was truly using a language 35 or simply responding to patterson s prompts it is generally accepted that koko did not demonstrate the use of syntax or grammar key characteristics of language visual symbols edit some researchers used plastic tokens or other visual symbols in an effort to teach apes human language psychologist david premack worked with sarah and other chimpanzees to develop a vocabulary using several dozen plastic tokens premack began the research in 1964 at yerkes laboratory in florida while working to complete his ph d in psychology and philosophy his focus was on studying what separates humans from other species 36 the most accomplished of premack s chimps sarah learned to answer simple questions and could make and carry out requests but premack noted that she did not ask questions herself and argued that this severely limited chimps ability to communicate other researchers in primate cognition have found evidence of ape inquiries while noting that the structure of their queries may not look exactly like human question asking for example researcher cat hobaiter said if a chimpanzee looks its handler in the eyes and points to a banana it may be interpreted that the ape is asking to have the banana 37 premack documented his work with chimps in a book co authored with his wife science writer ann james premack the mind of an ape 1983 38 reflecting back on his chimpanzee language work in 2007 premack was dismissive i had no interest in chimpanzees or language there was no definition of language it was mumbo jumbo from the philosophers of the day the only way i could ever understand it was to get an appropriate nonhuman and cut language into pieces and install them one by one it all boils down to next to nothing it s all nonsense 36 kanzi edit main article kanzi kanzi learned hundreds of arbitrary symbols representing words objects and familiar people including the generic visitor kanzi a bonobo learned to communicate with a lexigram board at first by eavesdropping on the lessons researcher sue savage rumbaugh was giving to his adoptive mother kanzi used the lexigram board by pushing symbols that stand for words the board was wired to a computer and symbols were vocalized out loud once pressed one day rumbaugh used the computer to say to kanzi can you make the dog bite the snake it is believed kanzi had never heard this sentence before in answering the question kanzi searched among the objects present until he found a toy dog and a toy snake put the snake in the dog s mouth and used his thumb and finger to close the dog s mouth over the snake in 2001 alexander fiske harrison writing in the financial times observed that kanzi was asked by an invisible interrogator through head phones to avoid cueing to identify 35 different items in 180 trials his success rate was 93 percent 39 in further testing beginning when he was 7 1 2 years old kanzi was asked 416 complex questions responding correctly over 74 of the time kanzi has been observed verbalizing a meaningful noun to his sister 40 kanzi relied highly on the lexigrams for communication and frequently used them to specify where he wanted to go or an item he wanted to have he did this by expressing his goal location or object first and his action go chase carry give etc last this notified researchers that kanzi s way of communicating was different from that of spoken english especially because kanzi would communicate many of his action words using simple gestures in addition kanzi was frequently seen linking two action words together using the lexigrams like i tickle chase hide or chase bite these word combinations are not necessarily structured in a way that humans would use spoken english but they closely resemble lists consisting of preferred actions in preferred order of kanzi s social play because of this inconsistency of kanzi s use of language with the spoken english language many question whether kanzi s understanding of english crosses the boundary with true language 13 criticism and controversy edit language abilities edit controversy in the 1970s and early 1980s centered on different understandings of language the gardners roger fouts and penny patterson all psychologists operated from a lay person s understanding of language as simply a means of communication as in the popular term body language they succeeded in teaching apes a number of signs 41 but doing so led to inflated claims about talking apes in the mainstream media linguists understood language as a complex structured system of communication defined by several key characteristics teaching apes to use isolated signs was from this perspective nothing to do with language many argued in line with terrace 31 that the apes merely demonstrated a form of operant conditioning similar to pigeons trained to peck buttons in a specific order 42 so when the psychologists trumpeted apes acquisition of speech or language other scholars especially linguists criticized these claims and pointed out problems with them the most significant and enduring criticism regarded the lack of evidence supporting great apes use of syntax and grammatical sentence structure 43 without demonstrating the use of sentences the apes could not be said to have acquired language the gardners did not set out to focus on sentence creation terrace however did 31 the nim chimpsky study had been designed to ...