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or the perso arabic alphabet for the punjabi language shahmukhi was modeled on the term gurmukhī 18 19 history and development edit antecedents edit the gurmukhī script is generally believed to have roots in the proto sinaitic alphabet 20 by way of the brahmi script 21 which developed further into the northwestern group sharada based the central group nagari based and the eastern group siddhaṃ based 22 as well as several prominent writing systems of southeast asia in addition to scripts used historically in central asia for extinct languages like saka and tocharian 22 gurmukhi is derived from sharada in the northwestern group of which it is the only major surviving member 14 with full modern currency 23 notable features include it is an abugida in which all consonants have an inherent vowel ə diacritics which can appear above below before or after the consonant they are applied to are used to change the inherent vowel when they appear at the beginning of a syllable vowels are written as independent letters to form consonant clusters gurmukhi uniquely affixes subscript letters at the bottom of standard characters rather than using the true conjunct symbols used by other scripts 23 which merge parts of each letter into a distinct character of its own punjabi is a tonal language with three tones these are indicated in writing using the formerly voiced aspirated consonants gh dh bh etc and the intervocalic h 24 origin edit pictorial depiction of proto gurmukhi script 13th century with current glyphs displayed above each character there are various theories regarding the origin of gurmukhi with most agreeing that gurmukhi ultimately originated from sharada but differing in regards to which intermediary script between gurmukhi and sharada that gurmukhi was immediately derived from the theories are as follows 17 it derived from devāśeṣa script argued by tarlochan singh bedi 16 17 it derived from ardhanagari a script used in bathinda sindh and western punjab argued by g b singh 16 17 it derived from landa scripts 25 it derived from takri scripts 25 other theories posit connections to devanagari and siddham siddhamatrika 17 phoenician 𐤀 𐤁 𐤂 𐤃 𐤄 𐤅 𐤆 𐤇 𐤈 𐤉 𐤊 𐤋 𐤌 𐤍 𐤎 𐤏 𐤐 𐤑 𐤒 𐤓 𐤔 𐤕 aramaic 𐡀 𐡁 𐡂 𐡃 𐡄 𐡅 𐡆 𐡇 𐡈 𐡉 𐡊 𐡋 𐡌 𐡍 𐡎 𐡏 𐡐 𐡑 𐡒 𐡓 𐡔 𐡕 brahmi 𑀅 𑀩 𑀪 𑀕 𑀥 𑀠 𑀏 𑀯 𑀤 𑀟 𑀚 𑀛 𑀳 𑀖 𑀣 𑀞 𑀬 𑀓 𑀘 𑀮 𑀫 𑀦 𑀗 𑀜 𑀡 𑀰 𑀑 𑀧 𑀨 𑀲 𑀔 𑀙 𑀭 𑀱 𑀢 𑀝 gurmukhi ਅ ਬ ਭ ਗ ਧ ਢ ੲ ਵ ਦ ਡ ਜ ਝ ਹ ਘ ਥ ਠ ਯ ਕ ਚ ਲ ਮ ਨ ਙ ਞ ਣ ਸ਼ ੳ ਪ ਫ ਸ ਖ ਛ ਰ ਖ ਤ ਟ iast a ba bha ga dha ḍha ē va da ḍa ja jha ha gha tha ṭha ya ka ca la ma na ṅa ña ṇa śa ō pa pha sa kha cha ra ṣa ta ṭa greek α β γ δ ε ϝ ζ η θ ι κ λ μ ν ξ ο π ϻ ϙ ρ σ τ possible derivation of gurmukhi from earlier writing systems 26 note 1 the greek alphabet also descended from phoenician is included for comparison proto gurmukhī writing dated to c 1470 1490 from the tomb of rae feroze in hathur ludhiana punjab 27 a transcription of a goindwal pothī or produced text excerpt of sikh scripture or auxiliary writings carried out by sahansar ram guru amar das grandson c late 16th century it showcases an early form of the gurmukhi script with affinities to other laṇḍā scripts gurmukhi evolved in cultural and historical circumstances notably different from other regional scripts 14 for the purpose of recording scriptures of sikhism a far less sanskritized cultural tradition than others of the subcontinent 14 this independence from the sanskritic model allowed it the freedom to evolve unique orthographical features 14 these include three basic bearer vowels integrated into the traditional gurmukhi character set using the vowel diacritics to write independent vowels instead of distinctly separate characters for each of these vowels as in other scripts 24 28 a drastic reduction in the number and importance of conjunct characters 24 29 1 similar to brahmi the letters of which gurmukhi letters have remained more similar to than those of nagari have 30 and characteristic of northwestern abugidas 23 a unique standard ordering of characters that somewhat diverges from the traditional vargiya or sanskritic ordering of characters 24 31 including vowels and fricatives being placed in front 32 33 the recognition of indo aryan phonological history through the omission of characters representing the sibilants ʃ and ʂ 34 retaining only the letters representing sounds of the spoken language of the time 1 these sibilants were naturally lost in most modern indo aryan languages though such characters were often retained in their respective consonant inventories as placeholders and archaisms 24 while being mispronounced 34 these sibilants were often variously reintroduced through later circumstances as ʃ was to gurmukhi 33 necessitating a new glyph 34 the development of distinct new letters for sounds better reflecting the vernacular language spoken during the time of its development e g for ɽ 35 and the sound shift that merged sanskrit ʂ and kʰ to punjabi kʰ a gemination diacritic a unique feature among native subcontinental scripts 14 which serve to indicate the preserved middle indo aryan geminates distinctive of punjabi 23 36 and other features historical geographical distribution of sharada script 37 from the 10th century onwards regional differences started to appear between the sharada script used in punjab the hill states partly himachal pradesh and kashmir sharada proper was eventually restricted to very limited ceremonial use in kashmir as it grew increasingly unsuitable for writing the kashmiri language 37 with the last known inscription dating to 1204 c e the early 13th century marks a milestone in the development of sharada 37 the regional variety in punjab continued to evolve from this stage through the 14th century during this period it starts to appear in forms closely resembling gurmukhī and other landa scripts by the 15th century sharada had evolved so considerably that epigraphists denote the script at this point by a special name dēvāśēṣa 37 tarlochan singh bedi 1999 prefers the name prithamă gurmukhī or proto gurmukhī 38 chatterjee 1963 noted that in 17th century punjab the scripts being used were perso arabic nagari and gurmukhi g b singh 1981 argues that the script existed prior to its adoption by the sikhs 3 437 a sample of a mediaeval handwritten gurmukhi document meanwhile the mercantile scripts of punjab known as the laṇḍā scripts were normally not used for literary purposes laṇḍā means alphabet without tail 23 implying that the script did not have vowel symbols in punjab there were at least ten different scripts classified as laṇḍā mahajani being the most popular the laṇḍā scripts were used for household and trade purposes 39 in contrast to laṇḍā the use of vowel diacritics was made obligatory in gurmukhī for increased accuracy and precision due to the difficulties involved in deciphering words without vowel signs 1 40 the glyphs ਅ ਹ ਚ ਦ ਣ and ਲ experienced minor orthographical changes before 1610 major changes involved the ਙ and ਞ characters and the ਬ was a later invention 9 sikhism edit adi granth folio scribed by guru arjan with the original 35 letters paintī plus vowel nasalization and punctuation diacritics of the gurmukhī script at the top and right side of the page guru nanak was born into a mercantile family meaning he would have been familiar with local scripts that were employed by such merchant and scribal communities in northwest india at the time namely the mahajan kayastha and khatris 25 the sikh gurus adopted proto gurmukhī to write the guru granth sahib the religious scriptures of the sikhs it was through its recording in gurmukhi that knowledge of the pronunciation and grammar of the old punjabi language c 10th 16th century was preserved for modern philologists 41 it has been described as being tailor made to writing the punjabi language as it existed in the 16th century 42 the adoption of a distinct script was an assertion of a separate religious identity 25 as part of the adoption by the sikhs the characters ਸ and ਹ were shifted to the first line and ੳ was made the first letter 9 18th century fresco of a woman writing in gurmukhī from pothimala guru harsahai punjab the original sikh scriptures and most of the historic sikh literature have been written in the gurmukhi script 43 for which the script is revered by sikhs 42 guru angad is popularly credited 3 44 154 155 in the sikh tradition with the creation and standardization of gurmukhi script from earlier śāradā descended scripts native to the region 43 whilst the creation of the gurmukhi script is commonly attributed to the second guru of the sikhs guru angad according to mangat bhardwaj the gurmukhi script or its antecedents pre date the development of sikhism by several centuries 42 sikh scholars themselves such as kahn singh of nabha 1930 g b singh 1950 piara singh padam 1954 and g s sidhu 2004 have documented gurmukhi prior to the arising of sikhism 42 the glyphs and symbols employed in gurmukhi pre date sikhism and it is more likely that guru angad standardized the pre existing scripts around 1530 1535 to create the standard gurmukhi script under the purview of guru nanak 42 in the following epochs gurmukhī became the primary script for the literary writings of the sikhs playing a significant role in sikh faith and tradition it expanded from its original use for sikh scriptures and developed its own orthographical rules spreading widely under the sikh empire and used by sikh kings and chiefs of punjab for administrative purposes 32 in seventeenth and eighteenth century punjab the script was also employed to write scientific and poetic literature from both sanskritic and persian traditions in the braj language 45 helping to foster a distinct sikh culture and contributing to the consolidation of the sikh religion expanding from its original role as the vehicle of sikh religious literature gurmukhi became particularly important in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries when the sikhs established political hegemony over punjab and kashmir 46 also playing a major role in consolidating and standardizing the punjabi language it served as the main medium of literacy in punjab and adjoining areas for centuries when the earliest schools were attached to gurdwaras 32 in jammu division takri which developed through the dēvāśēṣa stage of sharada from the 14th 18th centuries 37 developed into dogri 37 which was a highly imperfect script later consciously influenced in part by gurmukhi during the late 19th century 47 possibly to provide it an air of authority by having it resemble scripts already established in official and literary capacities 48 though not displacing takri 47 photograph of a pathasala class held at the golden temple complex in amritsar punjab 1908 pinned on the tree there is a poster of the thirty five glyphs of the gurmukhi script known in punjabi as the painti akhri further changes occurred during the first half of the 19th century involving the characters ਅ ਹ and ਲ 49 colonial period edit early british writers on the punjab such as john malcolm linked gurmukhi to punjabi and the sikhs in their works between 1851 54 punjab administration reports claimed that gurmukhi was held as sacred by the sikhs 50 304 but also claimed it had a declining influence and usage 50 304 305 goormookhee though of sacred origin and in the days of seikh supremacy both a courtly and priestly tongue is now rapidly falling into desuetude general report on the administration of the punjab for the years 1851 52 and 1852 53 in selections from the records p 184 christian missionary organisations such as the serampore mission press and especially the ludhiana mission press adopted the script in their works and were active in publishing gurmukhi translations grammars and dictionaries 50 292 301 the first natively produced grammars of the punjabi language were written in the 1860s in gurmukhi 51 the singh sabha movement of the late 19th century a movement to revitalize sikh institutions which had declined during colonial rule after the fall of the sikh empire also advocated for the usage of the gurmukhi script for mass media with print media publications and punjabi language newspapers established in the 1880s 52 in 1882 the lahore singh sabha petitioned charles aitchison governor of punjab to adopt gurmukhi as a medium of instruction in school at least for sikhs however the proposal was declined 53 in 1895 gurmukhi was adopted as a school script for punjabi at the first grade level at an amritsari school for the medium of instruction 44 154 155 the oriental college lahore offered punjabi courses in romanisation and gurmukhi in vidwan budhiman and gyani 54 modern times edit india edit official recognition of gurmukhī was made a prerequisite by the akali dal for political partnership in the 1940s leading up to the 1947 partition including in failed talks with the muslim league 55 later in the 1960s after the struggle of the punjabi suba movement the script was given the authority as the official state script of the punjab india 7 8 where it is used in all spheres of culture arts education and administration with a firmly established common and secular character 32 and is now the standard writing script for the punjabi language in india 43 it was adopted as the official script on 18 april 1968 3 438 the panjab official language act of 1967 made panjabi written in gurmukhi script as punjab state s official language mandating all legislative documents to be published in panjabi within the state 53 56 with technological advances introduced in the 1970s including the computer and the offset press gurmukhī usage would flourish in news media 57 it is one of the official scripts of the indian republic and is currently the 14th most used script in the world 58 in recent years gurmukhi has been influenced by english punctuation such as the usage of full stops to mark the end of sentences rather than the traditional dandi 9 pakistan edit after independence some pakistani punjabi writers advocated for the usage of gurmukhi to write the punjabi language such as p d raphael who believed it was more phonetically accurate than perso arabic script and that its use would maintain socio cultural connections between pakistani and indian punjabis in response sardar muhammad khan in 1953 took an opposing view and advocated for the usage of perso arabic stating that the phonetic nature of gurmukhi made it difficult to create a unified orthographic norm as people spell words by how they personally pronounce them which leads to many spelling variations for words furthermore khan stated that by the nature of their larger population the spellings of the uneducated would be dominant in such a gurmukhi landscape khan argued that gurmukhi lacked specific glyphs to represent the persian and arabic phonemes ع ain tˤ ط ṭoe ʕ and غ ghain ɣ̞ he also stated that using perso arabic for punjabi would be complimentary for urdu which is also written in perso arabic and the official language of pakistan later in 1956 khan argued...