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ts bruce sterling author of the hacker crackdown birth of subculture and entering mainstream 1960s 1980s the subculture around such hackers is termed network hacker subculture hacker scene or computer underground it initially developed in the context of phreaking during the 1960s and the microcomputer bbs scene of the 1980s it is implicated with 2600 the hacker quarterly and the alt 2600 newsgroup in 1980 an article in the august issue of psychology today with commentary by philip zimbardo used the term hacker in its title the hacker papers it was an excerpt from a stanford bulletin board discussion on the addictive nature of computer use in the 1982 film tron kevin flynn jeff bridges describes his intentions to break into encom s computer system saying i ve been doing a little hacking here clu is the software he uses for this by 1983 hacking in the sense of breaking computer security had already been in use as computer jargon 4 but there was no public awareness about such activities 5 however the release of the film wargames that year featuring a computer intrusion into norad raised the public belief that computer security hackers especially teenagers could be a threat to national security this concern became real when in the same year a gang of teenage hackers in milwaukee wisconsin known as the 414s broke into computer systems throughout the united states and canada including those of los alamos national laboratory sloan kettering cancer center and security pacific bank 6 the case quickly grew media attention 6 and 17 year old neal patrick emerged as the spokesman for the gang including a cover story in newsweek entitled beware hackers at play with patrick s photograph on the cover 7 pressured by media coverage congressman dan glickman called for an investigation and began work on new laws against computer hacking 8 9 neal patrick testified before the u s house of representatives on september 26 1983 about the dangers of computer hacking and six bills concerning computer crime were introduced in the house that year 9 use of the term hacker meaning computer criminal was also advanced by the title stalking the wily hacker an article by clifford stoll in the may 1988 issue of the communications of the acm later that year the release by robert tappan morris jr of the so called morris worm provoked the popular media to spread this usage the popularity of stoll s book the cuckoo s egg published one year later further entrenched the term in the public s consciousness naming longstanding controversy surrounds the meaning of the term hacker in this controversy computer programmers reclaim the term hacker arguing that it refers simply to someone with an advanced understanding of computers and computer networks 10 and that cracker is the more appropriate term for those who break into computers whether computer criminals black hats or computer security experts white hats 11 12 a 2014 article noted that the black hat meaning still prevails among the general public 13 the subculture that has evolved around hackers is often referred to as the computer underground classifications in computer security a hacker is someone who focuses on the security mechanisms of computer and network systems hackers can include someone who endeavors to strengthen security mechanisms by exploring their weaknesses and also those who seek to access secure unauthorized information despite security measures nevertheless parts of the subculture see their aim in correcting security problems and use the word in a positive sense white hat is the name given to ethical computer hackers who utilize hacking in a helpful way white hats are becoming a necessary part of the information security field 14 subgroups of the computer underground with different attitudes and motives use different terms to demarcate themselves from each other these classifications are also used to exclude specific groups with whom they do not agree cracker eric s raymond author of the new hacker s dictionary advocates that members of the computer underground should be called crackers yet those people see themselves as hackers and even try to include the views of raymond in what they see as a wider hacker culture a view that raymond has harshly rejected instead of a hacker cracker dichotomy they emphasize a spectrum of different categories such as white hat grey hat black hat and script kiddie in contrast to raymond they usually reserve the term cracker for more malicious activity according to ralph d clifford a cracker or cracking is to gain unauthorized access to a computer in order to commit another crime such as destroying information contained in that system 15 these subgroups may also be defined by the legal status of their activities 16 white hat main article white hat computer security a white hat hacker breaks security for non malicious reasons either to test their own security system perform penetration tests or vulnerability assessments for a client or while working for a security company that makes security software the term is generally synonymous with ethical hacker and certifications courseware classes and online training covering the diverse arena of ethical hacking have been developed 16 black hat main article black hat computer security a black hat hacker is a hacker who violates computer security for little reason beyond maliciousness or for personal gain 17 the term was coined by richard stallman to contrast the maliciousness of a criminal hacker versus the spirit of playfulness and exploration in hacker culture or the ethos of the white hat hacker who performs hacking duties to identify places to repair or as a means of legitimate employment 18 black hat hackers form the stereotypical illegal hacking groups often portrayed in popular culture and are the epitome of all that the public fears in a computer criminal 19 grey hat main article grey hat a grey hat hacker lies between a black hat and a white hat hacker hacking for ideological reasons 20 a grey hat hacker may surf the internet and hack into a computer system for the sole purpose of notifying the administrator that their system has a security defect for example they may then offer to correct the defect for a fee 19 grey hat hackers sometimes find the defect in a system and publish the facts to the world instead of a group of people even though grey hat hackers may not necessarily perform hacking for their personal gain unauthorized access to a system can be considered illegal and unethical script kiddie main article script kiddie a script kiddie also known as a skid or skiddie is an unskilled hacker who breaks into computer systems by using automated tools written by others usually by other black hat hackers hence the term script i e a computer script that automates the hacking kiddie i e kid child an individual lacking knowledge and experience immature 21 usually with little understanding of the underlying concept neophyte a neophyte newbie or noob is someone who is new to hacking or phreaking and has almost no knowledge or experience of the workings of technology and hacking 19 blue hat main article bluehat a blue hat hacker is someone outside computer security consulting firms who is used to bug test a system prior to its launch looking for exploits so they can be closed microsoft also uses the term bluehat to represent a series of security briefing events 22 23 24 hacktivist main article hacktivism this section is an excerpt from hacktivism edit anarchist hacker village at a hackers on planet earth hope conference 2018 hacktivism or hactivism a portmanteau of hack and activism is the use of computer based techniques such as hacking as a form of civil disobedience to promote a political agenda or social change a form of internet activism with roots in hacker culture and hacker ethics its ends are often related to free speech human rights or freedom of information movements organized criminal gangs groups of hackers that carry out organized criminal activities for profit 25 modern day computer hackers have been compared to the privateers of by gone days 26 these criminals hold computer systems hostage demanding large payments from victims to restore access to their own computer systems and data 27 cyber theft and ransomware attacks are now the fastest growing crimes in the united states 28 bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies facilitate the extortion of huge ransoms from large companies hospitals and city governments with little or no chance of being caught 29 attacks main article computer security hackers can usually be sorted into two types of attacks mass attacks and targeted attacks 30 they are sorted into the groups in terms of how they choose their victims and how they act on the attacks 30 a typical approach in an attack on internet connected system is network enumeration discovering information about the intended target vulnerability analysis identifying potential ways of attack exploitation attempting to compromise the system by employing the vulnerabilities found through the vulnerability analysis 31 in order to do so there are several recurring tools of the trade and techniques used by computer criminals and security experts security exploits main article exploit computer security a security exploit is a prepared application that takes advantage of a known weakness 32 common examples of security exploits are sql injection cross site scripting and cross site request forgery which abuse security holes that may result from substandard programming practice other exploits would be able to be used through file transfer protocol ftp hypertext transfer protocol http php ssh telnet and some web pages these are very common in web site and web domain hacking notable intruders and criminal hackers main article list of cybercriminals notable security hackers main article list of hackers andrew auernheimer sentenced to three years in prison is a hacker whose security group goatse security exposed a flaw in at t s ipad security dan kaminsky was a dns expert who exposed multiple flaws in the protocol and investigated sony s rootkit security issues in 2005 he spoke in front of the united states senate on technology issues ed cummings also known as bernie s is a longstanding writer for 2600 the hacker quarterly in 1995 he was arrested and charged with possession of technology that could be used for fraudulent purposes and set legal precedents after being denied both a bail hearing and a speedy trial eric corley also known as emmanuel goldstein is the longstanding publisher of 2600 the hacker quarterly he is also the founder of the hackers on planet earth hope conferences he has been part of the hacker community since the late 1970s susan headley also known as susan thunder was an american hacker active during the late 1970s and early 1980s widely respected for her expertise in social engineering pretexting and psychological subversion 33 she became heavily involved in phreaking with kevin mitnick and lewis de payne in los angeles but later framed them for erasing the system files at us leasing after a falling out leading to mitnick s first conviction 34 gary mckinnon is a scottish hacker who was facing extradition to the united states to face criminal charges many people in the uk called on the authorities to be lenient with mckinnon who has asperger syndrome the extradition has now been dropped 35 gordon lyon known by the handle fyodor authored the nmap security scanner as well as many network security books and web sites he is a founding member of the honeynet project and vice president of computer professionals for social responsibility guccifer 2 0 who claimed that he hacked into the democratic national committee dnc computer network jacob appelbaum is an advocate security researcher and developer for the tor project he speaks internationally for usage of tor by human rights groups and others concerned about internet anonymity and censorship joanna rutkowska is a polish computer security researcher who developed the blue pill rootkit and qubes os jude milhon known as st jude was an american hacker and activist founding member of the cypherpunk movement and one of the creators of community memory the first public computerized bulletin board system 36 kevin mitnick was a computer security consultant and author formerly the most wanted computer criminal in united states history 37 len sassaman was a belgian computer programmer and technologist who was also a privacy advocate meredith l patterson is a well known technologist and biohacker who has presented research with dan kaminsky and len sassaman at many international security and hacker conferences kimberley vanvaeck known as gigabyte is a belgian hacker recognized for writing the first virus in c 38 michał zalewski lcamtuf is a prominent security researcher solar designer is the pseudonym of the founder of the openwall project kane gamble sentenced to 2 years in youth detention who is autistic gained access to highly sensitive information and cyber terrorised high profile u s intelligence officials such as then cia chief john brennan or director of national intelligence james clapper 39 40 41 customs the computer underground 3 has produced its own specialized slang such as 1337speak writing software and performing other activities to support these views is referred to as hacktivism some consider illegal cracking ethically justified for these goals a common form is website defacement the computer underground is frequently compared to the wild west 42 it is common for hackers to use aliases to conceal their identities hacker groups and conventions main articles hacker conference and hacker group the computer underground is supported by regular real world gatherings called hacker conventions or hacker cons these events include summercon summer def con hohocon christmas shmoocon february black hat conference chaos communication congress athcon hacker halted and h o p e citation needed local hackfest groups organize and compete to develop their skills to send a team to a prominent convention to compete in group pentesting exploit and forensics on a larger scale hacker groups became popular in the early 1980s providing access to hacking information and resources and a place to learn from other members computer bulletin board systems bbss such as the utopias provided platforms for information sharing via dial up modem hackers could also gain credibility by being affiliated with elite groups 43 consequences for malicious hacking india section offence punishment 65 tampering with computer source documents intentional concealment destruction or alteration of source code when the computer source code is required to be kept or maintained by law for the time being in force imprisonment up to three years or and with fine up to 20000 rupees 66 hacking imprisonment up to three years or and with fine up to 50000 rupees netherlands article 138ab of wetboek van strafrecht proh...