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wn as nits are attached near the base of a host hair shaft 11 12 eggs are usually laid on the base of the hair 3 5 mm off the scalp surface 11 12 in warm climates and especially the tropics eggs may be laid 6 inches 15 cm or more down the hair shaft 13 to attach an egg the adult female secretes a glue from her reproductive organ this glue quickly hardens into a nit sheath that covers the hair shaft and large parts of the egg except for the operculum a cap through which the embryo breathes 12 the glue was previously thought to be chitin based but more recent studies have shown it to be made of proteins similar to hair keratin 12 each egg is oval shaped and approximately 0 8 mm in length 12 they are bright transparent and tan to coffee colored so long as they contain an embryo but appear white after hatching 12 13 head lice hatch typically six to nine days after oviposition 11 14 after hatching the louse nymph leaves behind its egg shell still attached to the hair shaft the empty eggshell remains in place until it is physically removed by abrasion or the host or until it slowly disintegrates which may take six months or more 14 sem images of a head louse egg louse egg attached to a hair shaft of its host the female reproductive organ secretes a glue that quickly hardens into a nit sheath to cover the hair shaft and large parts of the egg except for the operculum the operculum allows the embryo to breathe a first stage nymph hatching from an egg a first stage nymph hatching from an egg detail empty shells are matte collapsed and white the term nit may include any of the following 15 viable eggs that will eventually hatch remnants of already hatched eggs nits nonviable eggs dead embryo that will never hatch of these three only eggs containing viable embryos have the potential to infest or reinfest a host 16 however a no nit policy is a common public health measure to prevent transmission of lice some authors have therefore restricted the definition of nit to describe only a hatched or nonviable egg louse hatching in many languages the terms used for the hatched eggs which were obvious for all to see have subsequently become applied to the embryonated eggs that are difficult to detect thus the term nit in english is often used for both however in recent years my colleagues and i have felt the need for some simple means of distinguishing between the two without laborious qualification we have therefore come to reserve the term nit for the hatched and empty egg shell and refer to the developing embryonated egg as an egg ian f burgess 1995 14 the empty eggshell termed a nit j w maunder 1983 2 nits dead eggs or empty egg cases kosta y mumcuoglu and others 2006 17 others have retained the broad definition while simultaneously attempting to clarify its relevance to infestation in the united states the term nit refers to any egg regardless of its viability terri lynn meinking 1999 13 because nits are simply egg casings that can contain a developing embryo or be empty shells not all nits are infective l keoki williams and others 2001 11 head lice eggs nits are brown or white empty shells and attached to the hair nhs 2018 18 in british and irish slang the term nit is often used across different age groups to refer to head lice themselves 19 20 21 development and nymphs edit development of pediculus humanus humanus body lice which is similar to that of head lice pediculus humanus capitis head lice like other insects of the order phthiraptera are hemimetabolous 1 10 newly hatched nymphs will moult three times before reaching the sexually mature adult stage 1 thus mobile head lice populations may contain eggs nits three nymphal instars and the adults male and female imago 1 metamorphosis during head louse development is subtle the only visible differences between different instars and the adult other than size is the relative length of the abdomen which increases with each molt 1 as well as the existence of reproductive organs in the adults aside from reproduction the behavior of nymphs is similar to that of adults like adults nymphs feed also only on human blood hematophagia and cannot survive long away from a host 1 outside their hosts lice cannot survive more than 24 hours 22 the time required for head lice to complete their nymph development to the imago lasts for 12 15 days 1 nymph mortality in captivity is about 38 especially within the first two days of life 1 in the wild mortality may instead be highest in the third instar 1 nymph hazards are numerous failure to completely hatch from the egg is invariably fatal 1 death during molting can also occur although it is reportedly uncommon 1 during feeding the nymph s gut can rupture dispersing the host s blood throughout the insect s body this results in death within a day or two 1 whether the high mortality recorded under experimental conditions is representative of conditions in the wild is unclear 1 reproduction and lifespan edit copulation in pediculus humanus humanus pediculus humanus capitis is similar female is on top with the male below dilation of the female s vagina has already occurred and the male s dilator rests against his back dorsal surface out of the way the male vesica which contains the penis proper not seen is fully inserted into the vagina note the male s attachment with his specialized claws on the first leg pair to the specialized notch on the female s third leg pair head lice reproduce sexually and copulation is necessary for the female to produce fertile eggs parthenogenesis the production of viable offspring by virgin females does not occur in pediculus humanus 1 pairing can begin within the first 10 hours of adult life 1 after 24 hours adult lice copulate frequently with mating occurring during any period of the night or day 1 23 mating attachment frequently lasts more than an hour 23 young males can successfully pair with older females and vice versa 1 experiments with p h humanus body lice emphasize the attendant hazards of lice copulation a single young female confined with six or more males will die in a few days having laid very few eggs 1 similarly death of a virgin female was reported after admitting a male to her confinement 23 the female laid only one egg after mating and her entire body was tinged with red a condition attributed to rupture of the alimentary canal during the sexual act 23 old females frequently die following if not during copulation 23 during its lifespan of 4 weeks a female louse lays 50 150 eggs eggs hatch within 6 9 days each nymphal stage lasts for 4 5 days and accordingly the period from egg to adults lasts for 18 24 days adult lice live for an additional 3 4 weeks 24 factors affecting infestation edit main article head lice infestation the number of children per family the sharing of beds and closets hair washing habits local customs and social contacts healthcare in a particular area e g school and socioeconomic status were found to be significant factors in head louse infestation girls are two to four times more frequently infested than boys children between 4 and 14 years of age are the most frequently infested group 25 behaviour edit feeding edit all stages except eggs are blood feeders and bite the skin four to five times daily to feed they inject saliva which contains an anticoagulant and suck blood the digested blood is excreted as dark red frass 26 position on host edit although any part of the scalp may be colonized lice favor the nape of the neck and the area behind the ears where the eggs are usually laid head lice are repelled by light and move towards shadows or dark coloured objects in their vicinity 23 27 transmission edit lice have no wings or powerful legs for jumping so they use the claws on their legs to move from hair to hair 26 normally head lice infest a new host only by close contact between individuals making social contacts among children and parent child interactions more likely routes of infestation than shared combs hats brushes towels clothing beds or closets head to head contact is by far the most common route of lice transmission 28 distribution edit approximately 6 12 million people mainly children are treated annually for head lice in the united states alone in the uk it is estimated that two thirds of children will experience at least one case of head lice before leaving primary school 29 high levels of louse infestations have also been reported from all over the world including australia denmark france ireland israel and sweden 16 30 archaeogenetics edit analysis of the dna of lice found on peruvian mummies may indicate that some diseases such as typhus may have passed from the new world to the old world instead of the other way around 31 32 genome edit the sequencing of the genome of the body louse was first proposed in the mid 2000s 33 and the annotated genome was published in 2010 34 an analysis of the body and head louse transcriptomes revealed these two organisms are extremely similar genetically 35 indeed transcriptome analyses raises the possible that they differ due to phenotypic flexibility and this is probably a result of regulatory changes perhaps epigenetic in origin triggered by environmental signals 36 unlike other bilateral animals the 37 mitochondrial genes of human lice are not on a single circular chromosome but are extensively fragmented for the head louse and the body louse they are on 20 minichromosomes for the pubic louse 14 minichromosomes and the chimpanzee louse 18 minichromosomes 37 mitochondrial clades edit human lice are divided into three deeply divergent mitochondrial clades known as a b and c 38 39 three subclades have been identified d a sister clade of a e a sister clade of c and f a sister clade of b 32 40 41 clade a edit head and body worldwide found in ancient roman judea 32 clade d sister of clade a edit head and body central africa ethiopia united states clade b edit head only worldwide found in ancient roman judea and a 4 000 year old chilean mummy clade f sister of clade b edit head and body south america clade c edit head only ethiopia nepal thailand clade e sister of clade c edit head only west africa see also edit body louse crab louse lindane list of parasites of humans nitpicking pediculosis treatment of human head lice references edit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 buxton patrick a 1947 the biology of pediculus humanus the louse an account of the lice which infest man their medical importance and control 2nd ed london edward arnold pp 24 72 1 2 3 4 maunder j w 1983 the appreciation of lice proceedings of the royal institution of great britain 55 1 31 kittler r kayser m stoneking m august 2003 molecular evolution of pediculus humanus and the origin of clothing current biology 13 16 1414 7 bibcode 2003cbio 13 1414k doi 10 1016 s0960 9822 03 00507 4 pmid 12932325 stoneking mark 29 december 2004 erratum molecular evolution of pediculus humanus and the origin of clothing current biology 14 24 2309 doi 10 1016 j cub 2004 12 024 tovar corona jaime m castillo morales atahualpa chen lu olds brett p clark john m reynolds stuart e pittendrigh barry r feil edward j urrutia araxi o 2015 alternative splice in alternative lice molecular biology and evolution 32 10 2749 2759 doi 10 1093 molbev msv151 issn 0737 4038 pmc 4576711 pmid 26169943 buxton patrick a 1947 the crab louse phthirus pubis the louse an account of the lice which infest man their medical importance and control 2nd ed london edward arnold pp 136 141 pediculosis definition from the merriam webster online dictionary archived from the original on 2009 04 25 retrieved 2008 04 23 1 2 3 buxton patrick a 1947 the anoplura or sucking lice the louse an account of the lice which infest man their medical importance and control 2nd ed london edward arnold pp 1 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 buxton patrick a 1947 the anatomy of pediculus humanus the louse an account of the lice which infest man their medical 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