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based decisions 2 3 tracking heuristics 2 4 trade off 2 5 social heuristics 2 6 epistemic heuristics 2 7 behavioral economics 2 8 others 2 9 meta heuristic 3 history toggle history subsection 3 1 notable 3 1 1 figures 3 1 2 works 3 2 contemporary 3 3 adaptive toolbox 3 4 cognitive experiential self theory 3 5 attribute substitution 4 academic disciplines toggle academic disciplines subsection 4 1 psychology 4 2 philosophy 4 3 law 4 4 artificial intelligence 4 5 behavioural economics 5 stereotyping 6 see also 7 references 8 further reading toggle the table of contents heuristic 57 languages afrikaans العربية azərbaycanca български banjar বাংলা bosanski català čeština dansk deutsch ελληνικά esperanto español eesti euskara فارسی suomi français gaeilge galego עברית hrvatski magyar հայերեն bahasa indonesia ido italiano 日本語 қазақша 한국어 кыргызча македонски नेपाली nederlands norsk nynorsk norsk bokmål occitan polski português русский srpskohrvatski српскохрватски simple english slovenščina shqip српски srpski svenska தமிழ் ไทย tagalog türkçe українська oʻzbekcha ўзбекча tiếng việt winaray 粵語 中文 edit links article talk english read edit view history tools tools move to sidebar hide actions read edit view history general what links here related changes upload file permanent link page information cite this page get shortened url switch to legacy parser print export download as pdf printable version in other projects wikimedia commons wikidata item appearance move to sidebar hide from wikipedia the free encyclopedia problem solving method for other uses see heuristic disambiguation complex systems topics self organization emergence collective behavior social dynamics collective intelligence collective action self organized criticality herd mentality phase transition agent based modelling synchronization ant colony optimization particle swarm optimization swarm behaviour collective consciousness networks scale free networks social network analysis small world networks centrality motifs graph theory scaling robustness systems biology dynamic networks adaptive networks evolution and adaptation artificial neural network evolutionary computation genetic algorithms genetic programming artificial life machine learning evolutionary developmental biology artificial intelligence evolutionary robotics evolvability pattern formation fractals reaction diffusion systems partial differential equations dissipative structures percolation cellular automata spatial ecology self replication geomorphology systems theory and cybernetics autopoiesis conversation theory entropy feedback goal oriented homeostasis information theory operationalization second order cybernetics self reference system dynamics systems science systems thinking sensemaking variety theory of computation nonlinear dynamics time series analysis ordinary differential equations phase space attractors population dynamics chaos multistability bifurcation coupled map lattices game theory prisoner s dilemma rational choice theory bounded rationality evolutionary game theory v t e a heuristic 1 or heuristic technique problem solving mental shortcut rule of thumb 2 3 4 5 is any approach to problem solving that employs a pragmatic method that is not necessarily optimized perfected or rationalized but is nevertheless good enough as an approximation or attribute substitution 6 7 where finding an optimal solution is impossible or impractical heuristic methods can be used to speed up the process of finding a satisfactory solution 8 9 heuristics can be mental shortcuts that ease the cognitive load of making a decision 10 11 12 heuristic reasoning is often based on induction or on analogy induction is the process of discovering general laws induction tries to find regularity and coherence its most conspicuous instruments are generalization specialization analogy heuristic discusses human behavior in the face of problems that have been preserved in the wisdom of proverbs 13 george pólya how to solve it context edit part of a series on strategy analysis methods strategy strategic management military strategy strategic studies strategic planning strategic thinking decision theory game theory major thinkers michael porter rita gunther mcgrath bruce henderson gary hamel candace a yano c k prahalad jim collins liddell hart carl von clausewitz sun tzu julian corbett alfred thayer mahan j c wylie adrian slywotzky sharon oster chris zook henry mintzberg concepts business model competitive advantage value chain performance effects core competency generic strategies mission statement frameworks and tools swot five forces balanced scorecard ansoff matrix ogsm managerial grid model pest analysis growth share matrix stp mece principle business model canvas kraljic matrix strategic grid model strategy map vrio v t e main article strategy for broader coverage of this topic see trial and error rule of thumb and guessing gigerenzer gaissmaier 2011 state that sub sets of strategy include heuristics regression analysis and bayesian inference 14 a heuristic is a strategy that ignores part of the information with the goal of making decisions more quickly frugally and or accurately than more complex methods 15 s chow many meanings of heuristic the british journal for the philosophy of science heuristics are strategies based on rules to generate optimal decisions like the anchoring effect and utility maximization problem 16 these strategies depend on using readily accessible though loosely applicable information to control problem solving in human beings machines and abstract issues 17 18 when an individual applies a heuristic in practice it generally performs as expected however it can alternatively create systematic errors 19 the most fundamental heuristic is trial and error which can be used in everything from matching nuts and bolts to finding the values of variables in algebra problems in mathematics some common heuristics involve the use of visual representations additional assumptions forward backward reasoning and simplification dual process theory concerns embodied heuristics 20 heuristic rigour models edit part of a series on epistemology outline category schools coherentism contextualism dogmatism empiricism fallibilism fideism foundationalism infallibilism infinitism naturalism perspectivism pragmatism rationalism relativism skepticism solipsism structuralism concepts action analytic synthetic distinction a priori and a posteriori belief credence certainty data experience information justification induction knowledge meaning rationality reason truth wisdom domains applied epistemology evolutionary epistemology formal epistemology historical epistemology metaepistemology social epistemology virtue epistemology epistemologists aristotle sextus empiricus edmund gettier wang yangming rené descartes david hume immanuel kant w v o quine more related fields epistemic cognition epistemic logic philosophy of perception philosophy of science v t e information mapping topics and fields data visualization graphic communication infographics information design knowledge visualization mental model morphological analysis ontology information science schema psychology visual analytics visual language node link approaches argument map cladistics cognitive map concept lattice concept map conceptual graph decision tree dendrogram graph drawing hyperbolic tree hypertext issue map issue tree layered graph drawing mind map object role modeling organizational chart pathfinder network radial tree semantic network sociogram timeline topic map tree structure zigzag see also design rationale diagrammatic reasoning entity relationship model geovisualization list of concept and mind mapping software olog ontology philosophy problem structuring methods semantic web treemapping wicked problem v t e this list is incomplete you can help by adding missing items may 2024 main article rigour for broader coverage of this topic see expectation epistemic and cybernetics see also heuristic computer science and heuristic evaluation lakatosian heuristics is based on the key term justification epistemology 21 one reason decisions edit see also optimal stopping one reason decisions are algorithms that are made of three rules search rules confirmation rules stopping and decision rules 22 23 24 take the best heuristic decision making strategy 25 26 27 hiatus heuristic a recency of last purchase rule 28 default effect tendency to accept the default option 29 priority heuristic decision strategy 30 take the first heuristic 31 recognition based decisions edit a class whose function is to determine and filter out superfluous things 32 recognition heuristic 33 34 fluency heuristic mental heuristic 35 36 tracking heuristics edit for broader coverage of this topic see predation tracking heuristics is a class of heuristics 37 gaze heuristic 37 pointing and calling railway safety technique trade off edit trade off situational decision 38 tallying heuristic 39 40 equality heuristic 41 social heuristics edit social heuristics decision making processes in social environments 42 imitation behaviour in which an individual observes and replicates another s behaviour 43 tit for tat english saying meaning equivalent retaliation 44 wisdom of the crowd collective perception of a group of people 45 epistemic heuristics edit for broader coverage of this topic see tacit assumption propositional attitude concept in epistemology 46 essence that which makes or defines an entity 47 analysis process of understanding a complex topic or substance 48 falsifiability property of a statement that can be logically contradicted 49 hierarchy of evidence heuristic ranking science research results behavioral economics edit main article behavioral economics affect heuristic mental shortcut based on emotion 50 feedback process where information about current status is used to influence future status 51 reinforcement consequence affecting an organism s future behavior 51 stimulus response model conceptual framework in psychology 51 others edit satisficing cognitive heuristic of searching for an acceptable decision 52 53 54 representativeness heuristic tool for assisting judgement in uncertainty 55 56 57 availability heuristic bias towards recently acquired information 58 59 awareness perception or knowledge of something 60 base and superstructure concepts in marxist theory 61 social organism model of social interactions 61 dialectic method of reasoning and philosophical argument 61 continuum limit continuum limit in lattice models 62 johari window technique in personality development social rationality desert philosophy condition of being deserving of something whether good or bad 63 less is better effect cognitive bias minimalist heuristic 64 unification of theories in physics idea of connecting all of physics into one set of equations 65 backward induction process of reasoning backwards in sequence meta heuristic edit main article metaheuristic for broader coverage of this topic see list of metaphor based metaheuristics optimality 66 survival of the fittest phrase to describe the mechanism of natural selection 66 mechanical equilibrium when the net force on a particle is zero 66 chemical equilibrium when the ratio of reactants to products of a chemical reaction is constant with time 66 homeostasis state of steady internal conditions maintained by living things 66 entropy property of a thermodynamic system 66 history edit main article analysis for broader coverage of this topic see dialectic george polya studied and published on heuristics in 1945 67 polya 1945 cites pappus of alexandria as having written a text that polya dubs heuristic 68 pappus heuristic problem solving methods consist of analysis and synthesis 69 notable edit this list is incomplete you can help by adding missing items may 2024 figures edit george polya 70 71 67 herbert a simon 70 daniel kahneman 70 amos tversky 70 72 gerd gigerenzer 70 judea pearl 73 robin dunbar 74 david perkins page 75 herbert spencer 75 charles alexander mcmurry 75 frank morton mcmurry 75 lawrence zalcman 76 imre lakatos 77 william c wimsatt 78 79 alan hodgkin 80 andrew huxley 80 works edit meno 75 how to solve it 71 mathematics and plausible reasoning 71 contemporary edit the study of heuristics in human decision making was developed in the 1970s and the 1980s by the psychologists amos tversky and daniel kahneman 81 although the concept had been originally introduced by the nobel laureate herbert a simon simon s original primary object of research was problem solving that showed that we operate within what he calls bounded rationality he coined the term satisficing which denotes a situation in which people seek solutions or accept choices or judgements that are good enough for their purposes although they could be optimised 82 rudolf groner analysed the history of heuristics from its roots in ancient greece up to contemporary work in cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence 83 proposing a cognitive style heuristic versus algorithmic thinking which can be assessed by means of a validated questionnaire 84 adaptive toolbox edit the adaptive toolbox contains strategies for fabricating heuristic devices 85 the core mental capacities are recall memory frequency object permanence and imitation 86 gerd gigerenzer and his research group argued that models of heuristics need to be formal to allow for predictions of behavior that can be tested 87 they study the fast and frugal heuristics in the adaptive toolbox of individuals or institutions and the ecological rationality of these heuristics that is the conditions under which a given heuristic is likely to be successful 88 the descriptive study of the adaptive toolbox is done by observation and experiment while the prescriptive study of ecological rationality requires mathematical analysis and computer simulation heuristics such as the recognition heuristic the take the best heuristic and fast and frugal trees have been shown to be effective in predictions particularly in situations of uncertainty it is often said that heuristics trade accuracy for effort but this is only the case in situations of risk risk refers to situations where all possible actions their outcomes and probabilities are known in the absence of this information that is under uncertainty heuristics can achieve higher accuracy with lower effort 89 this finding known as a less is more effect would not have been found without formal models the valuable insight of this program is that heuristics are effective not despite their simplicity but because of it furthermore gigerenzer and wolfgang gaissmaier found that both individuals and organisations rely on heuristics in an adaptive way 90 cognitive experiential self theory edit heuristics through greater refinement and research have begun to be applied to other theories or be explained by them for example the cognitive experiential self theory cest is also an adaptive view of heuris...