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mouse driven computer with a graphical user interface or wimp windows icons menus and pointers based on the motorola 68000 microprocessor the macintosh included many of the lisa s features at a price of us 2 495 the macintosh was introduced with 128 kb of ram and later that year a 512 kb ram model became available to reduce costs compared the lisa the year younger macintosh had a simplified motherboard design no internal hard drive and a single 3 5 inch floppy drive applications that came with the macintosh included macpaint a bit mapped graphics program and macwrite which demonstrated wysiwyg word processing while not a success upon its release the macintosh was a successful personal computer for years to come this is particularly due to the introduction of desktop publishing in 1985 through apple s partnership with adobe this partnership introduced the laserwriter printer and aldus pagemaker to users of the personal computer shortly after the departures of steve jobs and steve wozniak from apple in 1985 a number of different models of macintosh including the macintosh plus and macintosh ii were released to a great degree of success the entire macintosh line of computers was ibm s major competition up until the early 1990s amiga edit amiga 1000 the amiga was a range of computers first released in 1985 by commodore with high performance graphics and audio capabilities the machines found particular success as gaming platforms and also in video production the amiga achieved popularity in several european countries in the late 1980s and early 1990s selling around 4 8 million units sales were comparatively muted in north america but it did find some niches in this region the amiga computers were originally conceived as a game console activision games co founder larry kaplan had seen a preview of the nintendo nes in 1982 and wanted to produce a more capable machine he first contacted atari employee doug neubauer who had worked on the sound chip for the atari 8 bit home computer range and then later recruited jay miner who had also worked on the graphics chip for the same machines they formed hi toro corporation to develop the new console later to be renamed amiga kaplan and neubauer would drop out and be replaced by ron nicholson from apple and joe decuir who had worked for atari they first sold a range of peripherals to raise money for the new venture by 1983 amiga were running out of money and approached atari for extra financing which was agreed by 1984 atari was losing money and amiga had a clause in their contract with atari that they could buy out control of the machine for half a million dollars commodore was looking for a new design to replace the c64 and agreed to finance this amiga development subsequently moved to commodore 49 the amiga machines introduced a sophisticated set of custom chips that allowed the relatively slow cpus of the time to accelerate graphics operations one of the key functions was the blitter which was suggested by nicholson and would be central to the graphical performance of the amiga this was a chip for moving blocks of data at high speed and could also concurrently modify and combine blocks in various ways this allowed regions of graphics to be copied very rapidly around the display without the involvement of the cpu the concept wasn t new it originally came from the xerox alto and had been used previously in the mindset computer 1984 but was popularised by the amiga the blitter was used to effect in a 1984 amiga industry demo featuring a pseudo 3d rotating checkered ball later to be known as the boing ball and would become associated with the amiga brand the fluidity of motion of a graphic of that size had not been seen on any other cost competitive machines of the era competitors allowed only comparatively tiny sprites to be drawn with any speed hardware blitter would become a standard feature in the industry going forwards a typical ibm pc clone of the era displayed 16 colors at best and more usually only 4 from a fixed palette the amiga offered 4096 colours with up to 64 colors on screen at once but through a clever hardware trick called ham mode it was possible to display all 4096 colors on screen simultaneously in some situations 99 this was an unprecedented feat on any machine in the same price bracket and enabled the novelty of displaying photo realistic images on an affordable home computer another innovation was the inclusion of a genlock capability which allowed amiga graphics to be mixed with a television video signal this allowed the amiga to be competitive in video production against more expensive rivals the amiga also included a complete graphical pre emptive multi tasking operating system called workbench competing gui operating systems were only beginning to gain momentum at the time and often did not allow several programs to be run at once the commodore amiga 1000 was launched as a desktop personal computer in 1985 at an event featuring the artist andy warhol and the singer debbie harry known professionally as blondie 100 the machine featured a motorola 68000 processor and 256kb of ram in combination with the custom chips the series would reach its height with the release of the cost reduced a500 version in 1987 which was not discontinued until 1992 the series would be joined by several other models including versions aimed at the high end graphics and video markets such as the amiga 3000 1990 into the cd rom era a home appliance version was produced in the form of the cd tv 1991 and a dedicated game console version known as the cd32 1993 the amiga range ended with the bankruptcy of commodore in 1994 but the series continues to have a cult following from enthusiasts the rise of the graphical user interface edit main article history of the graphical user interface the now ubiquitous wimp windows icons menus and pointers graphical user interface style was developed from research ideas pioneered by douglas engelbart into a fully functional product by xerox parc in the early 1970s in 1981 xerox released the xerox star as a commercial product which featured a full graphical user interface with a bitmapped display the star was developed from the xerox alto developed in 1972 with a release price of over 16 000 the star was not within the range of most personal computer buyers the british graphics company quantel had released the gui driven paintbox product in 1981 which became a staple of the television industry through the 1980s this was an extremely expensive personal computer intended for a very specific market segment graphics design and not for the general public a number of apple employees were shown the work of xerox and this heavily influenced the gui driven apple lisa released in 1983 concurrently to the lisa visicorp noted for the visicalc spreadsheet was working on the visi on gui environment first demonstrated at comdex in 1982 and released their version for the ibm pc in 1983 neither the lisa nor visi on was a significant commercial success as both required expensive hardware the apple lisa was followed by the first of the more successful macintosh range in 1984 which had cut the hardware costs for running a gui to a more palatable level it was commonplace for individual software releases to feature elements of a gui in the 1980s without requiring any specific gui based operating system to be installed many programs used a mouse and had menus and icons but each program would have its own style and there was no consistent look and feel the user would have to learn how to use each title separately as opposed to intuitively understanding it there were also no standards or consistency in the types of pointing device supported and a particular brand of mouse may or may not work the rise of gui based operating systems would bring consistency to the user experience and also deliver a toolbox of useful library routines for software to draw upon each individual software title would no longer have to code the routines necessary to draw a window or fonts in varying sizes x window system for unix emerged around june 1984 derived from the earlier w windowing environment 101 at the time unix personal computers were not commonly encountered by the general public being mostly in the form of very expensive workstations found in academia and specialist applications x window system continued to be the dominant windowing implementation on unix like operating systems and is still widely deployed as the underlying windowing system in many linux distributions today tandy released a primitive gui for their range of pcs called deskmate in 1984 microsoft windows 1 0 was released in 1985 but at this stage offered only very limited functionality not even supporting overlapping windows and had little market impact until version 3 0 released in 1990 thereafter windows started to gain ground and become the dominant windowing operating system for ibm clones digital research gem graphics environment manager is a capable wimp gui released in 1985 for multiple platforms including the atari st which shipped with gem as standard a number of amstrad pcs shipped with gem for dos despite not being the inventors of the wimp interface style apple would sue digital research resulting in a settlement that reduced the capabilities of gem in 1986 the final retail release was in 1988 the commodore amiga range of machines included a wimp gui called workbench as standard in 1985 a gui was also available for the commodore 64 known as geos the acorn archimedes range was supplied with the arthur gui in 1987 later to be known as risc os ibm developed their own windowing operating system in collaboration with microsoft called os 2 to coincide with the release of the ibm ps 2 range of pcs os 2 was released in 1987 and gained a gui with version 1 1 in 1988 it would later become known as os 2 warp microsoft and ibm had ended their collaboration on the project by 1992 due to a commercial dispute and microsoft had shifted focus to their own ms windows platform with ms windows usually being bundled with pcs os 2 failed to gain significant market traction with the exception of specific market niches where ibm had dominance such as in finance beos is a windowing operating system developed by be inc which was founded by jean louis gassée a former apple executive it was strongly considered as a replacement for the ailing mac os system 7 after apple s internal project copland intended to be macos system 8 encountered difficulties commercial negotiations between apple and be inc ultimately failed apple co founder steve jobs had started a new workstation venture called next and as a result had developed a gui operating system called nextstep apple ultimately purchased next in 1996 and the os then formed the foundation of future apple operating systems this deal is also notable as the point at which steve jobs returned to apple and the company found significant new success under his leadership workstations edit a silicon graphics octane workstation workstations are a class of personal computer the term workstation is a marketing moniker used to differentiate a personal computer from competing products there is no strict technical definition as to what comprises a workstation other than it will usually be expected to have higher performance than an average business personal computer consequently a workstation is usually more expensive and is marketed towards high end professional use cases workstations are often aimed at very specific market niches such as scientific computing or graphics production that have requirements not fulfilled by mainstream business machines prior to around the year 2000 it was common for workstations to be based around a unique bespoke architecture and the machines would be quite distinctive relative to pcs typically seen in business or the home it was not uncommon for workstation vendors to produce their own cpus with architectures such as mips sparc and alpha appearing workstations often had custom built graphics processors to achieve higher resolutions and colour depth than was typical on ibm pc machines of the era vendors would usually offer a proprietary operating system as standard this was most often a variant of unix which afforded some degree of compatibility between competing workstation vendors but less so with software for dos or windows based ibm pcs vendors that were noted for the production of workstations included hp dec sun microsystems silicon graphics sgi and next in subsequent years specialist workstation vendors declined as the performance of commodity pcs strengthened and became viable in the niches workstations would traditionally occupy personal computers described as workstations became more likely to be based around the standard pc architecture and use components not dissimilar to those found in mainstream business machines ibm pc clones dominate edit towards the end of the 1980s ibm pc xt clones started to encroach on the home computer market segment previously the preserve of low cost manufacturers such as atari inc and commodore ibm pc compatible systems became cheaper and started to sell for under 1000 particularly via mail order rather than a traditional dealer network these prices were achieved by using older generation pc technology dell began as one of these manufacturers under its original name of pc s limited 1990s and 2000s edit next edit 1990 nextstation in 1990 the nextstation workstation went on sale for interpersonal computing as steve jobs described it the nextstation was meant to be a new computer for the 1990s and cheaper than the previous next computer despite its pioneering use of object oriented programming concepts the nextstation was somewhat a commercial failure and next shut down hardware operations in 1993 102 cd rom edit the cd rom and cd rw drives became standards for most personal computers in the early 1990s the cd rom became an industry standard and by the mid 1990s one was built into almost all desktop computers and toward the end of the 1990s in laptops as well although introduced in 1982 the cd rom was mostly used for audio during the 1980s and then for computer data such as operating systems and applications into the 1990s another popular use of cd roms in the 1990s was multimedia as many desktop computers started to come with built in stereo speakers capable of playing cd quality music and sounds with the sound blaster sound card on pcs thinkpad edit thinkpad 720 ibm introduced its successful thinkpad range at comdex 1992 using the series designators 300 500 and 700 allegedly analogous to the bmw car range and used to indicate market the 300 series being the budget the 500 series midrange and the 700 series high end this designation continued until the late 1990s when ibm introduced the t series as 600 700 series replacements and the 3 5 and 7 series model designations were phased out for a 3 7 x 5 series the a series was later parti...