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th century rime tables such as the yunjing the evidence for the pronunciation of middle chinese comes from several sources modern dialect variations rime dictionaries foreign transliterations rime tables constructed by ancient chinese philologists to summarize the phonetic system and chinese phonetic translations of foreign words main article four tones middle chinese middle chinese tones developed from old chinese syllables with final consonants which disappeared with departing tone developing from syllables that ended with s rising tone developing from syllables that ended in ʔ the entering tone being syllables who retained a final stop consonant and level tone from syllables that ended in a vowel as these suffixes were part of the derivational morphology of old chinese tonal variation often appeared either in a single word or in semantically related words 40 the tang dynasty form of middle chinese was highly influential forming much of the reading pronunciations in korea japan and vietnam and displacing pre tang regional varieties across all of its territories except for individual words and colloquial min chinese 41 however norman and coblin 1995 questioned the assumption that all non min chinese varieties descended from middle chinese as indicated in the rime dictionaries demonstrating that spoken language in the middle chinese period was much more diverse and less phonologically conservative than the rime dictionaries indicate they questioned whether the non min varieties had split only during the period of middle chinese 7th century or later 42 wu chinese can be traced back to the eastern jin dynasty when commonfolk typically spoke the earlier local form of sinitic ancient wu or their native shandong or northern jiangsu chinese and the aristocracy typically spoke a variety not dissimilar to that of early medieval luoyang 43 this linguistic overlap eventually led to the formation of modern wu with many early coincidental strata that are hard to differentiate today 44 shandong and northern jiangsu dialects likely played an important role in the formation of wu chinese as more than half of the migrants came from this region 45 norman also argues that today s hakka and yue resulted from overlays of old southern chinese by successive waves of influence from northern china 21 according to sagart gan chinese has a thick late middle chinese layer brought by tang dynasty northern migrants combined with an archaic layer derived from the same source as min hakka and yue although less prominent due to its greater exposure to northern influence 46 on top of the tang era influences gan chinese absorbed continued northern influences due to southward flows of refugees in the southern song 47 old mandarin 1100 1400 edit main article old mandarin after the middle chinese period non han rule in northern china weakened the conservative tradition of the qieyun local speech patterns in the north developed a new form of spoken language which scholars now refer to as old mandarin shao yong s adaptation of the rime tables without reference to the qieyun tradition to describe the phonology of either 11th century kaifeng 48 or his hometown fanyang 49 show that the speech of this time already displayed some of the phonological characteristics of northern mandarin such as the diphthongization of vowels in syllables with k finals 50 51 zhou zumo 1966 concluded from shao yong s tables that his voiced stops and affricates had also devoiced and aspirated in level tone and devoiced without aspiration in other tones a change which was not visible in contemporary western xia records 49 similar records of chinese proper nouns in the khitan small script also show that diphthongization had occurred as well as other mandarin sound changes such as the loss of stop consonant finals and devoicing according to the aforementioned tonal rules 52 zhongyuan yinyun created by zhōu déqīng 周德清 in 1324 show the even tone 平 píng divided in upper and lower tones called 陰平 yīnpíng and 陽平 yángpíng respectively 53 apical vowels emerged as a new rime class 54 the entering tone disappeared and syllables in the entering tone are distributed between the other tones but placed after the other syllables with labels such as 入聲作去聲 rùshēng zuò qùshēng entering tone makes departing tone 55 56 during the jin song wars immigrants from northern china repopulated the devasted regions around the huai and lower yangtze areas and brought a variety which became jianghuai mandarin 57 some chinese linguists such as ting believe that jianghuai was formed from a substrate of wu while containing a superstratum of mandarin 58 middle mandarin 1400 1850 edit main article mandarin late imperial lingua franca the development of chinese has been complex the prevalence of mandarin throughout northern china is due in part to the open plains of northern china in contrast to the mountains and rivers of southern china that enabled greater linguistic diversity citation needed moreover mandarin called guanhua officials speech was at first based on the nanjing dialect from the beginning of the ming dynasty and became the dominant vernacular in northern china during the early qing it was gradually challenged by the variety used by scholar officials of beijing in the 17th century the qing began setting up orthoepy academies to conform pronunciation to the beijing standard but had little success 59 60 based on the differences between the accounts of korean scholar sin sukchu and the jesuit missionaries of the early ming to the late ming respectively mandarin during this period saw the loss of the voiced initials and the merger of m finals with n 61 the initials ʋ and r had become voiced fricatives v and ʐ respectively 62 ʔ had merged into ŋ before mid and low vowels and both initials had disappeared before high vowels 63 by the early 18th century the mid vowel e ɔ had merged with a 64 most of the vocabulary found in descriptions of mandarin speech before the mid 19th century has been retained by modern standard chinese however several words that appear in the more broadly based written vernacular of the qing and earlier periods are absent from early accounts of standard mandarin speech these include such now common words as hē 喝 to drink hěn 很 very suǒyǒude 所有的 all whatsoever and zánmen 咱們 we inclusive 65 the spoken language was completely distinct from the formal literary chinese which was still based on old chinese classics and was still fundamental to higher education during the ming and qing vernacular language baihua began to be used in novels but most formal writing remained in literary chinese 66 modern southwestern mandarin was formed by the waves of immigrants brought to the regions during the ming 67 68 and qing dynasties 69 the dialects of chengdu chongqing and hubei are believed to retain traits of ming era mandarin 70 ba shu chinese started to disappear during the late southern song dynasty period due to the mongol conquest of china which resulted in a massacre throughout the sichuan basin the language was supplanted by southwestern mandarin after settlement by people from other parts of china mostly from present day hubei and hunan 71 phonological aspects of ba shu chinese are preserved in the minjiang dialect of sichuanese mandarin which caused debate on whether the dialect is a variant of southwestern mandarin or a modern day descendant of ba shu 72 73 modern chinese 1850 present edit main article history of standard chinese during the late 19th century the beijing dialect finally replaced the nanjing dialect in the imperial court for the general population although varieties of mandarin were already widely spoken in china a single standard of mandarin did not exist non mandarin speakers in southern china continued to use their local varieties in most aspects of life the area where the new beijing court dialect was used was thus fairly limited citation needed this situation changed with the creation of an elementary school education system committed to teaching standard chinese in both mainland china and taiwan but not hong kong or macau at the time that it was being widely introduced in these places the british colony of hong kong did not use it at all in hong kong macau guangdong and parts of guangxi cantonese remains the everyday language used in business and education the chinese language has adopted a wide array of foreign words which have been adapted to chinese dialects and pronunciation referred to as the sinification of foreign words citation needed from 1919 reformers aggressively promoted a new written baihua vernacular writing based on beijing mandarin to completely replace literary chinese 74 after the establishment of the republic of china the 1913 commission on the unification of pronunciation planned to use standardize a new national dialect redubbing it as guoyu national language 75 the commission made an attempt to create a compromise between dialects a synthetic pronunciation based on beijing but adding back the entering tone and other consonantal finals from southern varieties as well as wu consonantal initials however this attempt at synthesis was abandoned by the late 1920s early 1930s in favor of beijing mandarin 76 continuing previous policies the people s republic of china sought to further standardize a common language now dubbed standard chinese for national and political unity the decision of the chinese communist party central committee and state council concerning elimination of illiteracy of march 1956 solidified the communist party s plans to reform the country s traditional characters to a simplified writing system to improve literacy 77 besides the standard writing systems promoted by the government no other written form of chinese has seen widespread use to an extent comparable to that of standard chinese 78 see also edit historical chinese phonology notes edit 1 2 according to baxter s 1992 reconstruction of old chinese 1 2 using baxter s transcription for middle chinese in this case the pronunciations have converged in standard chinese but they have not in other varieties references edit citations edit norman 1988 p 4 kern 2010 p 1 keightley 1978 p xvi bagley 2004 boltz 1999 p 109 sagart et al 2019 pp 10319 10320 thurgood lapolla 2017 p 5 handel 2015 p 37 38 norman 1988 pp 12 16 handel 2015 p 40 41 baxter 1992 p 11 12 norman 1988 p 58 zhang shuya 2022 rethinking the s suffix in old chinese with new evidence from situ rgyalrong pdf folia linguistica 56 s43 s1 129 167 doi 10 1515 flin 2022 2014 issn 0165 4004 s2cid 248002645 baxter 1992 pp 315 317 1 2 baxter 1992 p 315 baxter 1992 p 316 baxter 1992 pp 197 305 1 2 baxter 1992 p 218 baxter 1992 p 219 汪启明 2009 蜀语 名义阐微 云南师范大学学报 1 孙越川 2016 四川西南官话语音研究 电子工业出版社 isbn 978 7 121 29110 4 shen sheng 2024 sfnp error no target citerefshensheng2024 help 1 2 norman 1988 p 214 norman 1988 pp 211 214 norman 1991b pp 334 336 sfnp error no target citerefnorman1991b help schuessler 2009 p 29 coblin 1977 1978 pp 245 246 norman 1988 pp 111 125 zürcher 1996 p 14 zürcher 2013 pp 28 31 dobson 1964 pp xvii xix dobson 1964 p xviii 1 2 dobson 1964 p 101 zürcher 2013 pp 32 33 zürcher 2013 p 33 zürcher 2013 p 42 dobson 1964 pp 87 88 norman 1988 p 125 zürcher 2013 pp 44 36 dobson 1964 p 71 zürcher 2013 p 50 sagart laurent 20 september 2006 the origin of chinese tones hal retrieved 4 january 2026 pulleyblank 1984 p 3 norman jerry l coblin w south 1995 a new approach to chinese historical linguistics journal of the american oriental society 115 4 576 doi 10 2307 604728 he 1993 he 1993 p 868 coblin w south 2002 migration history and dialect development in the lower yangtze watershed bulletin of the school of oriental and african studies university of london 65 3 cambridge university press school of oriental and african studies 530 531 issn 0041 977x sagart laurent 2002 gan hakka and the formation of chinese dialects dialect variations in chinese 129 153 papers from the third international conference on sinology linguistics section coblin w south 2002 migration history and dialect development in the lower yangtze watershed bulletin of the school of oriental and african studies university of london 65 3 cambridge university press school of oriental and african studies 532 533 536 issn 0041 977x pulleyblank 1999 p 125 1 2 kane 2009 p 233 shen 2015 p 95 pulleyblank 1984 p 115 shen 2015 pp 93 95 norman 1988 p 49 dong hongyuan 2014 history of the chinese language taylor francis group p 77 isbn 978 1 317 74390 3 norman 1988 pp 48 50 oh young kyun 2013 engraving virtue the printing history of a premodern korean moral primer brill s korean studies library series leiden boston brill pp 147 148 isbn 978 90 04 24988 2 coblin 2002 p 536 sfnp error multiple targets 3 citerefcoblin2002 help sun ah jun 2005 sun ah jun ed prosodic typology the phonology of intonation and phrasing volume 1 illustrated ed oxford university press p 233 isbn 978 0 19 924963 3 retrieved 23 september 2011 chen janet y 2023 the sounds of mandarin learning to speak a national language in china and taiwan 1913 1960 new york columbia university press p 12 isbn 978 0 231 55775 7 kaske elisabeth 15 december 2007 the politics of language in chinese education 18951919 sinica leidensia not avail brill pp 48 52 isbn 978 90 04 16367 6 oclc 171268385 coblin 2000a p 539 coblin 2000b pp 275 283 coblin 2000b pp 288 293 coblin 2000a p 540 coblin 2000a pp 544 545 547 yang shiqun 2007 中国新闻传播史 in chinese beijing daxue chubanshe isbn 978 7 301 12603 5 holm david 2013 mapping the old zhuang character script a vernacular writing system from southern china brill p 42 isbn 978 90 04 24216 6 tsung linda 2014 language power and hierarchy multilingual education in china bloomsbury publishing p 239 isbn 978 1 4411 5574 0 chew phyllis ghim lian 2013 emergent lingua francas and world orders the politics and place of english as a world language routledge p 162 isbn 978 1 135 23557 4 zhoujixu 周及徐 2005 the pronunciation and historical evolution of 虽遂 class characters in ba shu dialects 巴蜀方言中 虽遂 等字的读音及历史演变 zhonghua wenhua luntan 中华文化论坛 liu xiaonan 刘晓南 2014 宋代四川语音研究 in chinese press of peking university isbn 9787301201350 xiang xuechun 向学春 2008 sìchuān fāngyán zhōng de gǔ bā shǔ tǔzhùyǔ yánjiū 四川方言中的古巴蜀土著语研究 a study on ba shu indigenous language in sichuan dialect chóngqìng sānxiá xuéyuàn xuébào 重庆三峡学院学报 in chinese 2008 5 103 106 liu xiaonan 刘晓南 2009 shì lùn sòngdài bā shǔ fāngyán yǔ xiàndài sìchuān fāngyán de guānxì jiān tán wénxiàn kǎozhèng de yīgè zhòngyào gōngyòng zhuīxún shīluò de fāngyán 试论宋代巴蜀方言与现代四川方言的关系 兼谈文献考证的一个重要功用 追寻失落的方言 on the relation between the bashu dialect in song dynasty and the modern sichuan dialect yǔyán kēxué 语言科学 in chinese 8 6 586 596 defrancis 1984 p 243 defrancis 1984 p 224 zhong 2019 p 36 37 defrancis 1984 p 295 norman 1988 p 3 works cited edit baxter william h 1992 a handbook of old chinese phonology berlin mouton de gruyter isbn 978 3 11 012324 1 coblin w south 1977 1978 the in...