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litical rise under the fatimids made it a desirable destination for merchants scholars and state officials by the twelfth century fustat and cairo had become the most important jewish centers in the east rivaling the iberian peninsula in the west the arrival of maimonides in egypt around 1165 marked the culmination of this shift as he became the de facto leader of egyptian jewry and one of the most influential jewish scholars of the middle ages 55 jewish life in egypt and trade networks edit during the fatimid period egypt became a major center of jewish life cairo especially the area around fustat housed a vibrant jewish community engaged in trade crafts and administrative roles jewish merchants particularly those involved in long distance commerce benefited from the security and stability provided by the fatimid state the geniza documents from the ben ezra synagogue in fustat reveal extensive jewish participation in mediterranean trade networks with correspondence between merchants in egypt north africa and even india 56 one of the most notable jewish merchant groups of this period were the radhanites who operated extensive trade networks spanning from western europe to china described in the ninth century by the abbasid geographer ibn khurradadhbih the radhanites were multilingual and traded in luxury goods including slaves furs textiles weapons and spices 56 while their presence predated fatimid rule jewish merchants in fatimid territories continued to play a crucial role in international trade as evidenced by later geniza documents 56 the fatimid conquest of egypt and the shift of the islamic economic center westward further strengthened jewish participation in commerce as cairo became a key hub in mediterranean and indian ocean trade 55 the fatimid court occasionally appointed jews to high ranking positions yaqub ibn killis a jewish convert to islam became vizier under caliph al aziz billah r 975 996 and played a crucial role in state administration 57 despite these opportunities jews like other dhimmis faced occasional persecution under caliph al hakim bi amr allah r 996 1021 harsher policies were briefly implemented including the destruction of synagogues and restrictions on religious practice though these measures were later reversed 57 the jewish community in fatimid lands was closely linked to the academies in iraq the heads of the babylonian yeshivot geonim maintained extensive correspondence with jewish communities in egypt providing legal and religious guidance the position of nagid leader of the jewish community emerged in egypt under fatimid rule consolidating jewish leadership within the empire 55 the jews in al andalus 711 1492 edit main articles history of the jews in spain and golden age of jewish culture in spain the jewish communities of al andalus thrived during the period of muslim rule on the iberian peninsula particularly between the reign of abd al rahman iii 912 961 and the almohad conquest after 1140 this era often referred to as a golden age saw an unprecedented flourishing of jewish culture intellectual life and political influence despite earlier persecution under the visigoths when jews lived in great social and legal insecurity and faced forced conversions the jews of al andalus embraced arab culture and language enabling their integration and the development of a rich literary tradition this unification under arabic culture constituted a fundamental change that facilitated communication and cooperation among jewish communities and strengthened their cohesion 58 prominent jewish figures held high ranking positions in political and economic spheres with some serving as viziers diplomats and advisors to muslim rulers hasdai ibn shaprut described as surpassing all the royal servants in his manners intellectual discipline subtlety patience and intelligence played a key role in the umayyad court where he also contributed to the importation of hebrew texts from the east 59 despite the significant achievements of jewish communities in al andalus episodes of persecution revealed the fragility of their position the 1066 granada massacre the razing of the entire jewish quarter in the andalucian city of granada 60 marked a particularly violent moment when joseph ha nagid a prominent jewish vizier was assassinated this event led to widespread looting and the killing of many members of the jewish community 61 similarly the almohad dynasty s rise in the mid 12th century imposed forced conversions to islam causing many jews to flee to christian territories in the north or to islamic regions such as morocco and tunisia according to some arabic sources even those who converted faced suspicion and were required to wear distinctive clothing to identify themselves 62 the philosopher maimonides one of the most notable jewish figures of the era was among those who emigrated during this period epitomizing the broader jewish diaspora prompted by these events 63 64 in 1465 a mob enraged by stories about the behavior of a jewish vizier killed many of the jews and the sultan himself 65 the community was temporarily converted but soon reverted to judaism 65 in al andalus jews contributed to scholarship literature and governance scholars like yehuda halevi and shlomo ibn gabirol played pivotal roles in bridging jewish and islamic traditions the hebrew language could not isolate itself from the cultural world in which it was located indicating the influence of arab muslim culture on jewish thought and literature 66 the jewish aristocracy in al andalus also mirrored the manners and values of their muslim counterparts participating in poetry contests composing qasidas in hebrew and engaging in intellectual debates grammarians and philologists such as yehuda hayyuj made groundbreaking advances by applying arabic linguistic principles to hebrew which enriched the understanding of biblical texts 67 almohad 1121 1269 persecution of jews in north africa edit the almohad caliphate ruling parts of north africa and the iberian peninsula during the 12th and 13th centuries subjected jewish communities to widespread persecution under almohad rule synagogues were destroyed jewish practices were outlawed and forced conversions to islam were imposed almohad chronicler ʿabd al wāḥid al marrākushī noted that no church or synagogue is to be found in the entire maghreb and described jews outwardly practicing islam while secretly maintaining their faith at home 68 jewish sources provide a mixed perspective on these events while some such as abraham ibn daʾūd depict the almohad persecutions as a program of mass forced conversion 69 others like maimonides suggest that these conversions often involved verbal declarations that did not deeply disrupt jewish life in his epistle on martyrdom maimonides described forced conversions as superficial and advised jews to preserve their faith secretly rather than face martyrdom 70 however mark r cohen claims that maimonides s famous statement n o nation has ever done more harm to israel than islam reflects the great sage s own recent experience of almohad persecution in his native spain and morocco 71 the persecutions led to significant theological reflections within the jewish community while earlier islamic regimes were relatively tolerant the almohad period marked a profound shift forcing jews to reconsider their relationship with islam and their theological understandings of suffering some like joseph ibn ʿaqnīn regarded the almohad era as one of the most devastating periods in jewish history and he argued for migration to more tolerant lands as a solution 72 seljuk empire 1077 1307 and early ottoman rule edit main article history of the jews in turkey early modern period edit ottoman empire edit photochrom of jews in jerusalem in the 1890s main articles history of the jews in the ottoman empire and history of the jews in turkey the ottoman empire served as a refuge for jewish refugees from the spanish empire especially after the fall of muslim spain and the imposition of the edict of expulsion in 1492 this continued through the roman catholic inquisition as secret jews and forced converts continued to flee spain the maghreb from north africa similarly found refuge among the ottomans as large arabian cities created their own restrictive jewish quarters mellahs in 1834 in safed ottoman syria local muslim arabs carried out a massacre of the jewish population known as the safed plunder 73 in 1840 the jews of damascus were falsely accused by christians of having murdered a christian monk and his muslim servant and of having used their blood to bake passover bread a jewish barber was tortured until he confessed two other jews who were arrested died under torture while a third converted to islam to save his life after the damascus affair the ottoman empire banned blood libel accusations most of the blood libel assucations were initiated by greek christians due to historical animosity between greeks and jews 74 during the final chapter of the ottoman empire increasing nationalism and economic hardship lead to anti jewish setiment in the region 74 in 1864 around 500 jews were killed in marrakesh and fez in morocco in 1869 18 jews were killed in tunis and an arab mob on djerba island looted and burned jewish homes stores and synagogues in 1875 20 jews were killed by a mob in demnat morocco elsewhere in morocco jews were attacked and killed in the streets in broad daylight in 1867 1870 and 1897 synagogues were ransacked and jews were murdered in tripolitania 75 kurdistan edit main article kurdish jews further information history of the jews in iraq and history of the jews in syria jews lived in kurdistan for thousands of years before the final and mass migration in 1951 1952 to israel for many years the jews lived under the rule of the turkish and persian empires and following world war i they mainly lived in iraq iran and turkey some jews lived in syria jews lived in many kurdish urban centers such as aqra dohuk arbil zakho sulaimaniya amadia in southern kurdistan in saqiz bana and ushno in eastern kurdistan in jezira nisebin mardin and diyarbakır in turkey and qamishle in north western syria jews also lived in hundreds of villages in the rural and tribal area of kurdistan usually one or two jewish families lived in a village where they worked as weavers of traditional kurdish clothing or they lived as tenants of the agha the landlord or the head of the village persia edit main articles persian jews and history of the jews in iran in 1656 all jews were expelled from isfahan and forced to convert to islam because of a common belief that their jewishness was impure however as it became known that the converts continued to practice judaism in secret and because the treasury suffered from the loss of jizya collected from the jews in 1661 they were allowed to revert to judaism although they were still required to wear a distinctive patch on their clothing 76 in 1839 in the eastern persian city of meshed a mob burst into the jewish quarter burned the synagogue and destroyed the torah scrolls the jews themselves were violently forced to convert narrowly avoiding complete massacre 77 78 there was another massacre in barfurush in 1867 79 80 in 1839 the allahdad incident the jews of mashhad iran now known as the mashhadi jews were coerced into converting to islam 81 in the middle of the 19th century j j benjamin wrote of persian jews they are obliged to live in a separate part of town for they are considered as unclean creatures under the pretext of their being unclean they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street inhabited by mussulmans they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt for the same reason they are prohibited to go out when it rains for it is said the rain would wash dirt off them which would sully the feet of the mussulmans if a jew is recognized as such in the streets he is subjected to the greatest insults the passers by spit in his face and sometimes beat him unmercifully if a jew enters a shop for anything he is forbidden to inspect the goods should his hand incautiously touch the goods he must take them at any price the seller chooses to ask for them sometimes the persians intrude into the dwellings of the jews and take possession of whatever please them should the owner make the least opposition in defense of his property he incurs the danger of atoning for it with his life if a jew shows himself in the street during the three days of the katel muharram he is sure to be murdered 82 jews in central asia under muslim rule edit main article history of the jews in central asia the jewish presence in central asia dates back to antiquity predating the islamic conquest of the region in the 8th century the bukharan jews a distinct jewish community primarily settled in major oasis cities such as bukhara samarkand merv khiva and balkh speaking a dialect of judeo tajik a variant of judeo persian 83 status under muslim rule edit the bukharan jews lived under the dhimmi system which granted them limited religious autonomy in exchange for the payment of the jizya tax their legal status was regulated by the emir of bukhara and they were led by a kalontar tajik or nasi hebrew who managed internal community affairs 84 while relations with the hanafi sunni muslim majority were generally stable jews faced periodic discrimination and forced conversions particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries 85 converted jews known as chala formed a distinct community that retained jewish customs despite officially identifying as muslims 86 jews were subject to several discriminatory regulations including dress restrictions bans on horse riding and segregation into specific neighborhoods mahallas 87 they were also often barred from holding certain professions but engaged in trade artisan work and medicine 88 impact of russian expansion edit the russian conquest of central asia in the 19th century significantly altered the status of bukharan jews seeking allies against local muslim rulers russian authorities granted bukharan jews a privileged legal status allowing them to engage in commerce across the empire 89 this led to economic growth within the community with some jewish families such as the vodiaevs and davidoffs amassing considerable wealth in trade textiles and industry 90 by the late 19th century russian authorities began reversing some of these privileges due to economic and political tensions leading to new restrictions on jewish settlement and land ownership 91 zaydi yemen edit under zaydi rule discriminatory laws which were imposed on the yemenite jews became more severe eventually culminating in their exile in what later became known as the exile of mawza 92 they were considered impure and as a result they were forbidden from touching a muslim and they were also forbidden from touching a muslim s food 92 they were obligated to humble themselves before a muslim they ...