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a medica genre describing 700 medicinal plants 64 preparations from mineral sources and 57 preparations based on animal sources 4 notwithstanding such developments the roots of modern zoology are usually traced back to the secular tradition of ancient greek philosophy 5 ancient greek traditions edit the pre socratic philosophers asked many questions about life but produced little systematic knowledge of specifically zoological interest though the attempts of the atomists to explain life in purely physical terms would recur periodically through the history of zoology however the medical theories of hippocrates and his followers especially humorism had a lasting impact 6 aristotelian zoology edit aristotle edit aristotle reported correctly that electric rays were able to stun their prey main article aristotle s biology the philosopher aristotle created the science of biology basing its theory on both his metaphysical principles and on observation he proposed theories for the processes of metabolism temperature regulation information processing embryonic development and inheritance he made detailed observations of nature especially the habits and attributes of animals in the sea at lesbos he classified 540 animal species and dissected at least 50 7 8 9 aristotle and nearly all western scholars after him until the 18th century believed that creatures were arranged in a graded scale of perfection rising from plants on up to humans the scala naturae or great chain of being 10 hellenistic zoology edit a few scholars in the hellenistic period under the ptolemies particularly herophilus of chalcedon and erasistratus of chios amended aristotle s physiological work even performing experimental dissections and vivisections 11 claudius galen became the most important authority on medicine and anatomy though a few ancient atomists such as lucretius challenged the teleological aristotelian viewpoint that all aspects of life are the result of design or purpose teleology and after the rise of christianity natural theology remained central to biological thought until the 18th and 19th centuries 12 medieval and islamic zoology edit frederick ii s influential de arte venandi explored bird morphology the decline of the roman empire led to the disappearance or destruction of much knowledge though physicians still incorporated many aspects of the aristotelian tradition into training and practice in byzantium and the islamic world many of aristotle s works were translated into arabic and commented upon by scholars such as avicenna and averroes 13 medieval muslim physicians scientists and philosophers made significant contributions to zoological knowledge between the 8th and 13th centuries during the islamic golden age the arab scholar al jahiz 781 869 described the idea of a food chain 14 and was an early adherent of environmental determinism 15 during the high middle ages a few european scholars such as hildegard of bingen albertus magnus and frederick ii expanded the natural history canon magnus s de animalibus libri xxvi was one of the most extensive studies of zoological observation published before modern times 16 17 renaissance and early modern edit from anatomy to systematic taxonomy edit conrad gesner 1516 1565 his historiae animalium is considered the beginning of modern zoology see also scientific revolution the renaissance was the age of collectors and travellers when many of the stories were actually demonstrated as true when the living or preserved specimens were brought to europe verification by collecting of things instead of the accumulation of anecdotes then became more common and scholars developed a new faculty of careful observation 18 the renaissance brought expanded interest in both empirical natural history and physiology in 1543 andreas vesalius inaugurated the modern era of western medicine with his seminal human anatomy treatise de humani corporis fabrica which was based on dissection of corpses vesalius was the first in a series of anatomists who gradually replaced scholasticism with empiricism in physiology and medicine relying on first hand experience rather than authority and abstract reasoning bestiaries a genre that combines both the natural and figurative knowledge of animals also became more sophisticated conrad gessner s great zoological work historiae animalium appeared in four volumes 1551 1558 at zürich a fifth being issued in 1587 his works were the starting point of modern zoology other major works were produced by william turner pierre belon guillaume rondelet and ulisse aldrovandi 19 artists such as albrecht dürer and leonardo da vinci often working with naturalists were also interested in the bodies of animals and humans studying physiology in detail and contributing to the growth of anatomical knowledge 20 in the 17th century the enthusiasts of the new sciences the investigators of nature by means of observation and experiment banded themselves into academies or societies for mutual support and discourse the first founded of surviving european academies the academia naturae curiosorum 1651 especially confined itself to the description and illustration of the structure of plants and animals eleven years later 1662 the royal society of london was incorporated by royal charter having existed without a name or fixed organisation for seventeen years previously from 1645 a little later the academy of sciences of paris was established by louis xiv 18 later still the royal society of sciences in uppsala was founded systematizing naming and classifying dominated zoology throughout the 17th and 18th centuries carl linnaeus published a basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735 variations of which have been in use ever since and in the 1750s introduced scientific names for all his species 21 while linnaeus conceived of species as unchanging parts of a designed hierarchy the other great naturalist of the 18th century georges louis leclerc comte de buffon treated species as artificial categories and living forms as malleable even suggesting the possibility of common descent though he was writing in an era before evolution was recognized buffon is a key figure in the history of evolutionary thought his transformist theory would influence the evolutionary theories of both jean baptiste lamarck and charles darwin 22 before the age of exploration naturalists had little idea of the sheer scale of biological diversity the discovery and description of new species and the collection of specimens became a passion of scientific gentlemen and a lucrative enterprise for entrepreneurs many naturalists traveled the globe in search of scientific knowledge and adventure 23 table of the animal kingdom regnum animale from the 1st edition of linnaeus systema naturae 1735 extending the work of vesalius into experiments on still living bodies of both humans and animals william harvey investigated the roles of blood veins and arteries harvey s de motu cordis in 1628 was the beginning of the end for galenic theory and alongside santorio santorio s studies of metabolism it served as an influential model of quantitative approaches to physiology 24 impact of the microscope edit in the early 17th century the micro world of zoology was just beginning to open up a few lensmakers and natural philosophers had been creating crude microscopes since the late 16th century and robert hooke published the seminal micrographia based on observations with his own compound microscope in 1665 but it was not until antony van leeuwenhoek s dramatic improvements in lensmaking beginning in the 1670s ultimately producing up to 200 fold magnification with a single lens that scholars discovered spermatozoa bacteria infusoria and the sheer strangeness and diversity of microscopic life similar investigations by jan swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and built the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining 25 debate over the flood described in the bible catalyzed the development of paleontology in 1669 nicholas steno published an essay on how the remains of living organisms could be trapped in layers of sediment and mineralized to produce fossils although steno s ideas about fossilization were well known and much debated among natural philosophers an organic origin for all fossils would not be accepted by all naturalists until the end of the 18th century due to philosophical and theological debate about issues such as the age of the earth and extinction 26 18th century microscopes from the musée des arts et métiers paris advances in microscopy also had a profound impact on biological thinking in the early 19th century a number of biologists pointed to the central importance of the cell in 1838 and 1839 schleiden and schwann began promoting the ideas that 1 the basic unit of organisms is the cell and 2 that individual cells have all the characteristics of life though they opposed the idea that 3 all cells come from the division of other cells thanks to the work of robert remak and rudolf virchow however by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets of what came to be known as cell theory 27 in advance of on the origin of species edit up through the 19th century the scope of zoology was largely divided between physiology which investigated questions of form and function and natural history which was concerned with the diversity of life and interactions among different forms of life and between life and non life by 1900 much of these domains overlapped while natural history and its counterpart natural philosophy had largely given way to more specialized scientific disciplines cytology bacteriology morphology embryology geography and geology widespread travel by naturalists in the early to mid 19th century resulted in a wealth of new information about the diversity and distribution of living organisms of particular importance was the work of alexander von humboldt which analyzed the relationship between organisms and their environment i e the domain of natural history using the quantitative approaches of natural philosophy i e physics and chemistry humboldt s work laid the foundations of biogeography and inspired several generations of scientists 28 charles darwin s first sketch of an evolutionary tree from his first notebook on transmutation of species 1837 the emerging discipline of geology also brought natural history and natural philosophy closer together georges cuvier and others made great strides in comparative anatomy and paleontology in the late 1790s and early 19th century in a series of lectures and papers that made detailed comparisons between living mammals and fossil remains cuvier was able to establish that the fossils were remains of species that had become extinct rather than being remains of species still alive elsewhere in the world as had been widely believed 29 fossils discovered and described by gideon mantell william buckland mary anning and richard owen among others helped establish that there had been an age of reptiles that had preceded even the prehistoric mammals these discoveries captured the public imagination and focused attention on the history of life on earth 30 charles darwin combining the biogeographical approach of humboldt the uniformitarian geology of lyell thomas malthus s writings on population growth and his own morphological expertise created a more successful evolutionary theory based on natural selection similar evidence led alfred russel wallace to independently reach the same conclusions 31 charles darwin s early interest in nature led him on a five year voyage on hms beagle which established him as an eminent geologist whose observations and theories supported charles lyell s uniformitarian ideas and publication of his journal of the voyage made him famous as a popular author 32 puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage darwin investigated the transmutation of species and conceived his theory of natural selection in 1838 33 although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority 34 he was writing up his theory in 1858 when alfred russel wallace sent him an essay which described the same idea prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories 35 darwin s on the origin of species published on 24 november 1859 a seminal work of scientific literature was to be the foundation of evolutionary biology see also edit animals portal biology portal palaeontology portal history of zoology list of zoologists list of russian zoologists important publications in zoology timeline of zoology references edit magner a history of the life sciences pp 2 3 needham joseph ronan colin alistair 1995 the shorter science and civilisation in china an abridgement of joseph needham s original text vol 1 cambridge university press p 101 isbn 978 0 521 29286 3 magner a history of the life sciences p 6 girish dwivedi shridhar dwivedi 2007 history of medicine sushruta the clinician teacher par excellence pdf national informatics centre archived from the original pdf on 2008 10 10 retrieved 2008 10 08 cite journal cite journal requires journal help magner a history of the life sciences pp 3 9 magner a history of the life sciences pp 9 27 mayr the growth of biological thought pp 84 90 135 mason a history of the sciences pp 41 44 leroi armand marie 2014 the lagoon how aristotle invented science bloomsbury pp 370 373 isbn 978 1 4088 3622 4 mayr the growth of biological thought pp 201 202 see also lovejoy the great chain of being barnes hellenistic philosophy and science p 383 384 annas classical greek philosophy p 252 mayr the growth of biological thought pp 91 94 frank n egerton a history of the ecological sciences part 6 arabic language science origins and zoological bulletin of the ecological society of america april 2002 142 146 143 lawrence i conrad 1982 taun and waba conceptions of plague and pestilence in early islam journal of the economic and social history of the orient 25 3 pp 268 307 278 albertus magnus on animals a medieval summa zoologica the review of metaphysics december 01 2001 tkacz michael w mayr the growth of biological thought pp 91 94 as far as biology as a whole is concerned it was not until the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century that the universities became centers of biological research 1 2 one or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain lankester edwin ray 1911 zoology in chisholm hugh ed encyclopædia britannica vol 28 11th ed cambridge university press pp 1022 1039 see especially pp 1022 1024 mayr the growth of biological thought pp 166 171 magner a history of the life sciences pp 80 83 mayr the growth of biological thought chapter 4 mayr the growth of biological thought chapter 7 see raby bright paradise magner a history of the life sciences pp 103 113 magner a history of the life sciences p...