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nner similar to hydrogen cyanide when it is inhaled or its salts are ingested in high amounts damage to organs occurs rapidly with symptoms ranging from breathing difficulties to convulsions and death 13 14 despite this the human body produces small amounts of this sulfide and its mineral salts and uses it as a signalling molecule 15 hydrogen sulfide is often produced from the microbial breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen such as in swamps and sewers this process is commonly known as anaerobic digestion carried out by sulfate reducing microorganisms it also occurs in volcanic gases natural gas deposits and sometimes in well drawn water properties edit hydrogen sulfide is slightly denser than air a mixture of h 2 s and air can be explosive oxidation edit in general hydrogen sulfide acts as a reducing agent as indicated by its ability to reduce sulfur dioxide in the claus process hydrogen sulfide burns in oxygen with a blue flame to form sulfur dioxide so 2 and water 2 h 2 s 3 o 2 2 so 2 2 h 2 o if an excess of oxygen is present sulfur trioxide so 3 is formed which quickly hydrates to sulfuric acid so 3 h 2 o h 2 so 4 acid base properties edit it is slightly soluble in water and acts as a weak acid p k a 6 9 in 0 01 0 1 mol litre solutions at 18 c giving the hydrosulfide ion hs hydrogen sulfide and its solutions are colorless when exposed to air it slowly oxidizes to form elemental sulfur which is not soluble in water the sulfide anion s 2 is not formed in aqueous solution 16 h 2 s and h 2 o exchange protons rapidly this behavior is the basis of the girdler sulfide process which is used in the purification of deuterium oxide heavy water or d 2 o and exploits the easy distillation of these compounds 17 extreme temperatures and pressures edit at pressures above 90 gpa gigapascal 900 000 atmospheres hydrogen sulfide becomes a metallic conductor of electricity when cooled below a critical temperature this high pressure phase exhibits superconductivity the critical temperature increases with pressure ranging from 23 k at 100 gpa to 150 k at 200 gpa 18 if hydrogen sulfide is pressurized at higher temperatures then cooled the critical temperature reaches 203 k 70 c which was the highest accepted superconducting critical temperature until the discovery of lanthanum decahydride in 2019 by substituting a small part of sulfur with phosphorus and using even higher pressures it has been predicted that it may be possible to raise the critical temperature to above 0 c 273 k and achieve room temperature superconductivity 19 under atmospheric pressure and in the absence of a catalyst hydrogen sulfide decomposes around 1200 c into hydrogen and sulfur 20 reactions with metals edit hydrogen sulfide reacts with metal ions to form metal sulfides which are insoluble often dark colored solids this behavior is the basis of the use of hydrogen sulfide as a reagent in the qualitative inorganic analysis of metal ions in these analyses heavy metal and nonmetal ions e g pb ii cu ii hg ii as iii are precipitated from solution upon exposure to h 2 s the components of the resulting solid are then identified by their reactivity lead ii acetate paper is used to detect hydrogen sulfide because it readily converts to lead ii sulfide which is black 21 22 hydrogen sulfide is also responsible for tarnishing on various metals including copper and silver the chemical responsible for black toning found on silver coins is silver sulfide ag 2 s which is produced when the silver on the surface of the coin reacts with atmospheric hydrogen sulfide 23 coins that have been subject to toning by hydrogen sulfide and other sulfur containing compounds may have the toning add to the numismatic value of a coin based on aesthetics as the toning may produce thin film interference resulting in the coin taking on an attractive coloration 24 coins can also be intentionally treated with hydrogen sulfide to induce toning though artificial toning can be distinguished from natural toning and is generally criticised among collectors 25 production edit hydrogen sulfide is most commonly obtained by its separation from sour gas which is natural gas with a high content of h 2 s it can also be produced by treating hydrogen with molten elemental sulfur at about 450 c hydrocarbons can serve as a source of hydrogen in this process 26 s h 2 h 2 s the very favorable thermodynamics for the hydrogenation of sulfur implies that the dehydrogenation or cracking of hydrogen sulfide would require very high temperatures 27 a standard lab preparation is to treat ferrous sulfide with a strong acid in a kipp generator fes 2 hcl fecl 2 h 2 s for use in qualitative inorganic analysis thioacetamide is used to generate h 2 s ch 3 c s nh 2 h 2 o ch 3 c o nh 2 h 2 s many metal and nonmetal sulfides e g aluminium sulfide phosphorus pentasulfide silicon disulfide liberate hydrogen sulfide upon exposure to water 28 6 h 2 o al 2 s 3 3 h 2 s 2 al oh 3 this gas is also produced by heating sulfur with solid organic compounds and by reducing sulfurated organic compounds with hydrogen it can also be produced by mixing ammonium thiocyanate to concentrated sulfuric acid and adding water to it biosynthesis edit hydrogen sulfide can be generated in cells via enzymatic or non enzymatic pathways three enzymes catalyze formation of h 2 s cystathionine γ lyase cse cystathionine β synthetase cbs and 3 mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase 3 mst 29 cbs and cse are the main proponents of h 2 s biogenesis which follows the trans sulfuration pathway 30 these enzymes have been identified in a breadth of biological cells and tissues and their activity is induced by a number of disease states 31 these enzymes are characterized by the transfer of a sulfur atom from methionine to serine to form a cysteine molecule 30 3 mst also contributes to hydrogen sulfide production by way of the cysteine catabolic pathway 31 30 dietary amino acids such as methionine and cysteine serve as the primary substrates for the transulfuration pathways and in the production of hydrogen sulfide hydrogen sulfide can also be derived from proteins such as ferredoxins and rieske proteins 31 sulfate reducing resp sulfur reducing bacteria generate usable energy under low oxygen conditions by using sulfates resp elemental sulfur to oxidize organic compounds or hydrogen this produces hydrogen sulfide as a waste product 32 signaling role edit h 2 s in the body acts as a gaseous signaling molecule with implications for health and in diseases 29 33 34 35 h 2 s is involved in vasodilation in animals as well as in increasing seed germination and stress responses in plants 36 hydrogen sulfide exists in biology at nanomolar concentrations much of its signaling function can be attributed to the formation of hydropersulfides from biological thiols 37 h 2 s can directly modulate mammalian physiology in three ways by reacting with reactive oxygen species ros and reactive nitrogen species rns 36 by binding or reduction of metal centers of iron heme proteins and by persulfidation of protein cysteine residues 35 through persulfidation of keap1 hydrogen sulfide acts to reduce or disrupt ros levels in cells via activation of nrf2 which is known to increase the levels of glutathione 36 37 h 2 s has been shown to interact with the no pathway resulting in several different cellular effects including the inhibition of cgmp phosphodiesterases 38 as well as the formation of nitroxyl and thionitrous acid hsno an inorganic s nitrosothiol capable of nitrosating protein cysteine residues 37 the field of h 2 s biology has advanced from environmental toxicology to investigate the roles of endogenously produced h 2 s in physiological conditions and in various pathophysiological states 39 h 2 s has been implicated in cancer down syndrome and in vascular disease 40 41 42 43 at lower concentrations it stimulates mitochondrial function via multiple mechanisms including direct electron donation 44 45 however at higher concentrations it inhibits complex iv of the mitochondrial electron transport chain which effectively reduces atp generation and biochemical activity within cells 36 uses edit production of sulfur edit hydrogen sulfide is mainly consumed as a precursor to elemental sulfur this conversion called the claus process involves partial oxidation to sulfur dioxide the latter reacts with hydrogen sulfide to give elemental sulfur the conversion is catalyzed by alumina 46 2 h 2 s so 2 3 s 2 h 2 o production of thioorganic compounds edit many fundamental organosulfur compounds are produced using hydrogen sulfide these include methanethiol ethanethiol and thioglycolic acid 26 hydrosulfides can be used in the production of thiophenol 47 production of metal sulfides edit upon combining with alkali metal bases hydrogen sulfide converts to alkali hydrosulfides such as sodium hydrosulfide and sodium sulfide h 2 s naoh nash h 2 o nash naoh na 2 s h 2 o sodium sulfides are used in the paper making industry specifically salts of hs break bonds between lignin and cellulose components of pulp in the kraft process 26 as indicated above many metal ions react with hydrogen sulfide to give the corresponding metal sulfides oxidic ores are sometimes treated with hydrogen sulfide to give the corresponding metal sulfides which are more readily purified by flotation metal parts are sometimes passivated with hydrogen sulfide catalysts used in hydrodesulfurization are routinely activated with hydrogen sulfide 26 occurrence edit deposit of sulfur on a rock caused by volcanic gas volcanoes and some hot springs as well as cold springs emit some h 2 s hydrogen sulfide can be present naturally in well water often as a result of the action of sulfate reducing bacteria 48 better source needed hydrogen sulfide is produced by the human body in small quantities through bacterial breakdown of proteins containing sulfur in the intestinal tract it therefore contributes to the characteristic odor of flatulence it is also produced in the mouth halitosis 49 a portion of global h 2 s emissions is due to human activity by far the largest industrial source of h 2 s is petroleum refineries the hydrodesulfurization process liberates sulfur from petroleum by the action of hydrogen the resulting h 2 s is converted to elemental sulfur by partial combustion via the claus process which is a major source of elemental sulfur other anthropogenic sources of hydrogen sulfide include coke ovens paper mills using the kraft process tanneries and sewerage h 2 s arises from virtually anywhere where elemental sulfur comes in contact with organic material especially at high temperatures depending on environmental conditions it is responsible for the deterioration of material through the action of some sulfur oxidizing microorganisms it is called biogenic sulfide corrosion citation needed in 2011 it was reported that increased concentrations of h 2 s were observed in the bakken formation crude possibly due to oil field practices and presented challenges such as health and environmental risks corrosion of wellbore added expense with regard to materials handling and pipeline equipment and additional refinement requirements 50 besides living near gas and oil drilling operations ordinary citizens can be exposed to hydrogen sulfide by being near sewage treatment facilities landfills and farms with manure storage exposure occurs through breathing contaminated air or drinking contaminated water 51 decomposing sargasso algae as it occurs in coastal areas of countries affected by the great atlantic sargassum belt emit hydrogen sulfide in municipal waste landfill sites the burial of organic matter rapidly leads to the production of anaerobic digestion within the waste mass and with the humid atmosphere and relatively high temperature that accompanies biodegradation biogas is produced as soon as the air within the waste mass has been reduced if there is a source of sulfate bearing material such as plasterboard or natural gypsum calcium sulfate dihydrate under anaerobic conditions sulfate reducing bacteria convert this to hydrogen sulfide these bacteria cannot survive in air but the moist warm anaerobic conditions of buried high carbon waste provide an excellent environment for the formation of hydrogen sulfide in inert landfills paper and glue used in the fabrication of products such as plasterboard can provide a rich source of carbon 52 in industrial anaerobic digestion processes such as wastewater treatment or the digestion of organic waste from agriculture hydrogen sulfide can be formed from the reduction of sulfate and the degradation of amino acids and proteins within organic compounds 53 sulfates are relatively non inhibitory to methane forming bacteria but can be reduced to h 2 s by sulfate reducing bacteria of which there are several genera 54 removal from water edit a number of processes have been designed to remove hydrogen sulfide from drinking water 55 continuous chlorination for levels up to 75 mg l chlorine is used in the purification process as an oxidizing chemical to react with hydrogen sulfide this reaction yields insoluble solid sulfur usually the chlorine used is in the form of sodium hypochlorite 56 aeration for concentrations of hydrogen sulfide lower than 2 mg l aeration is an ideal treatment process atmospheric oxygen is injected into water air sparging and oxidizes hydrogen sulfide producing odorless sulfate 57 removal from fuel gases edit hydrogen sulfide is commonly found in raw natural gas and biogas it is typically removed by amine gas treating technologies in such processes the hydrogen sulfide is first converted to an ammonium salt whereas the natural gas is unaffected 58 59 rnh 2 h 2 s rnh 3 sh the bisulfide anion is subsequently regenerated by heating of the amine sulfide solution hydrogen sulfide generated in this process is typically converted to elemental sulfur using the claus process process flow diagram of a typical amine treating process used in petroleum refineries natural gas processing plants and other industrial facilities safety edit the underground mine gas term for foul smelling hydrogen sulfide rich gas mixtures is stinkdamp hydrogen sulfide is a highly toxic and flammable gas flammable range 4 3 46 it can poison several systems in the body although the nervous system is most affected citation needed the toxicity of h 2 s is comparable with that of carbon monoxide 60 it binds with iron in the mitochondrial cytochrome enzymes thus preventing cellular respiration its toxic properties were described in detail in 1843 by justus von liebig 61 even before hydrogen sulfide was discovered italian physician bernardino ramazzini hypothesized in his 1713 book de morbis artificum diatriba that occupational diseases of sewer workers and blackening of coins in their clothes may be caused by an unknown invisible volatile acid moreover in late 18th century toxic gas emanation from paris sewers became a problem for the...