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at the university of kent in 1982 in 1980 roberto busa 16 an italian jesuit priest and one of the pioneers in the usage of computers for linguistic and literary analysis 17 published the index thomisticus as a tool for performing text searches within the massive corpus of aquinas s works 18 sponsored by the founder of ibm thomas j watson 19 the project lasted about 30 years 1949 1980 and eventually produced the 56 printed volumes of the index thomisticus the first important hypertext work about saint thomas aquinas books and of a few related authors 20 in 1983 ben shneiderman at the university of maryland human computer interaction lab led a group that developed the hyperties system that was commercialized by cognetics corporation they studied many designs before adopting the blue color for links hyperties was used to create the july 1988 issue of the communications of the acm as a hypertext document and then the first commercial electronic book hypertext hands on in 1985 grolier s academic american encyclopedia on cd rom was developed by activenture the encyclopedia could be navigated through hypertext links a full text search engine and a traditional bookshelf interface 21 22 in august 1987 apple computer released hypercard for the macintosh line at the macworld convention its impact combined with interest in peter j brown s guide marketed by owl and released earlier that year and brown university s intermedia led to broad interest in and enthusiasm for hypertext hypermedia databases and new media in general the first acm hypertext hyperediting and databases academic conference took place in november 1987 in chapel hill nc where many other applications including the branched literature writing software storyspace were also demonstrated 23 meanwhile nelson who had been working on and advocating his xanadu system for over two decades convinced autodesk to invest in his revolutionary ideas the project continued at autodesk for four years but no product was released in 1989 tim berners lee then a scientist at cern proposed and later prototyped a new hypertext project in response to a request for a simple immediate information sharing facility to be used among physicists working at cern and other academic institutions he called the project worldwideweb 24 hypertext is a way to link and access information of various kinds as a web of nodes in which the user can browse at will potentially hypertext provides a single user interface to many large classes of stored information such as reports notes data bases computer documentation and on line systems help we propose the implementation of a simple scheme to incorporate several different servers of machine stored information already available at cern including an analysis of the requirements for information access needs by experiments a program which provides access to the hypertext world we call a browser t berners lee r cailliau 12 november 1990 cern 24 in 1992 lynx was born as an early internet web browser its ability to provide hypertext links within documents that could reach into documents anywhere on the internet began the creation of the web on the internet as new web browsers were released traffic on the world wide web quickly exploded from only 500 known web servers in 1993 to over 10 000 in 1994 as a result all previous hypertext systems were overshadowed by the success of the web even though it lacked many features of those earlier systems such as integrated browsers editors a feature of the original worldwideweb browser which was not carried over into most of the other early web browsers implementations edit besides the already mentioned project xanadu hypertext editing system nls hypercard and world wide web there are other noteworthy early implementations of hypertext with different feature sets hypertext editing system hes ibm 2250 display console brown university 1969 fress a 1970s multi user successor to the hypertext editing system zog a 1970s hypertext system developed at carnegie mellon university electronic document system an early 1980s text and graphic editor for interactive hypertexts such as equipment repair manuals and computer aided instruction information presentation facility used to display online help in ibm operating systems intermedia a mid 1980s program for group web authoring and information sharing hyperties a mid 1980s program commercially applied to hundreds of projects including july 1988 communications of the acm and hypertext hands on book texinfo the gnu help system kms a 1980s successor to zog developed as a commercial product notecards a mid 1980s system from xerox parc using a notecard metaphor and graphical browser for idea processing storyspace a mid 1980s program for hypertext narrative document examiner an hypertext system developed in 1985 at symbolics for their genera operating system adobe s portable document format a widely used publication format for electronic documents amigaguide released on the commodore amiga workbench 1990 windows help released with windows 3 0 in 1990 wikis aim to compensate for the lack of integrated editors in most web browsers various wiki software have slightly different conventions for formatting usually simpler than html paperkiller a document editor specifically designed for hypertext started in 1996 as iper educational project for ed media 1997 xml with the xlink extension a newer hypertext markup language that extends and expands capabilities introduced by html academic conferences edit among the top academic conferences for new research in hypertext is the annual acm conference on hypertext and social media 25 the electronic literature organization hosts annual conferences discussing hypertext fiction poetry and other forms of electronic literature although not exclusively about hypertext the world wide web series of conferences organized by iw3c2 26 also include many papers of interest there is a list on the web with links to all conferences in the series 27 hypertext fiction edit main article hypertext fiction hypertext writing has developed its own style of fiction coinciding with the growth and proliferation of hypertext development software and the emergence of electronic networks hypertext fiction is one of earliest genres of electronic literature or literary works that are designed to be read in digital media two software programs specifically designed for literary hypertext storyspace and intermedia became available in the 1990s judy malloy s uncle roger 1986 and michael joyce s afternoon a story 1987 are generally considered the first works of hypertext fiction 28 29 an advantage of writing a narrative using hypertext technology is that the meaning of the story can be conveyed through a sense of spatiality and perspective that is arguably unique to digitally networked environments an author s creative use of nodes the self contained units of meaning in a hypertextual narrative can play with the reader s orientation and add meaning to the text one of the most successful computer games myst was first written in hypercard the game was constructed as a series of ages each age consisting of a separate hypercard stack the full stack of the game consists of over 2500 cards in some ways myst redefined interactive fiction using puzzles and exploration as a replacement for hypertextual narrative 30 critics of hypertext claim that it inhibits the old linear reader experience by creating several different tracks to read on this can also been seen as contributing to a postmodernist fragmentation of worlds in some cases hypertext may be detrimental to the development of appealing stories in the case of hypertext gamebooks where ease of linking fragments may lead to non cohesive or incomprehensible narratives 31 however they do see value in its ability to present several different views on the same subject in a simple way 32 this echoes the arguments of medium theorists like marshall mcluhan who look at the social and psychological impacts of the media new media can become so dominant in public culture that they effectively create a paradigm shift 33 as people have shifted their perceptions understanding of the world and ways of interacting with the world and each other in relation to new technologies and media so hypertext signifies a change from linear structured and hierarchical forms of representing and understanding the world into fractured decentralized and changeable media based on the technological concept of hypertext links in the 1990s women and feminist artists took advantage of hypertext and produced dozens of works linda dement s cyberflesh girlmonster a hypertext cd rom that incorporates images of women s body parts and remixes them to create new monstrous yet beautiful shapes caitlin fisher s award winning online hypertext novella these waves of girls 2001 is set in three time periods of the protagonist exploring polymorphous perversity enacted in her queer identity through memory the story is written as a reflection diary of the interconnected memories of childhood adolescence and adulthood it consists of an associated multi modal collection of nodes includes linked text still and moving images manipulable images animations and sound clips adrienne eisen pen name for penelope trunk wrote hypertexts that were subversive narrative journeys into the mind of a woman whose erotic encounters were charged with a post feminist satirical edge that cuts deep into the american psyche forms edit this section may contain original research please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations statements consisting only of original research should be removed november 2023 learn how and when to remove this message a screenshot from a reading of shelley jackson s patchwork girl where windows layer on top of each other there are various forms of hypertext fiction each of which is structured differently below are four axial hypertext fiction has the simplest structure its hypertext is situated along a linear axis with a straight path from beginning to end it is fairly easy for the reader to follow an example of an axial hypertext fiction is the virtual disappearance of miriam arborescent hypertext fiction is more complex than the axial form its hypertext has a branching structure which resembles a tree representing one beginning but many possible endings the branches followed and ultimately the ending reached are determined by choices made by the reader at each branch point in the narrative this is much like gamebook novels that allow readers to choose their own ending networked hypertext fiction is more complex than both axial and arborescent forms it consists of an interconnected system of nodes with no dominant axis of orientation unlike the arborescent form networked hypertexts do not have any designated beginning or any designated endings an example of a networked hypertext is shelley jackson s patchwork girl layered hypertext fiction consist of two layers of linked pages each layer is doubly linked sequentially and a page in the top layer is doubly linked with a corresponding page in the bottom layer the top layer contains plain text the bottom multimedia layer provides photos sounds and video in the dutch historical novel de man met de hoed nl 34 designed as layered hypertext in 2006 by eisjen schaaf pauline van de ven and paul vitányi the structure is proposed to enhance the atmosphere of the time to enrich the text with research and family archive material and to enable readers to insert memories of their own while preserving tension and storyline see also edit timeline of hypertext technology cybertext distributed data management architecture html hypertext markup language http hyperkino anchor text references edit hypertext definition merriam webster free online dictionary retrieved february 26 2015 lehman jeffrey phelps shirelle 2005 west s encyclopedia of american law vol 9 2 ed 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