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million turkey 4 3 million h egypt 2 1 million israel 2 1 million germany 1 4 million qatar 1 0 million saudi arabia 800 000 brazil 700 000 united states 700 000 united arab emirates 700 000 kuwait 400 000 indonesia 300 000 canada 300 000 sweden 200 000 australia 100 000 venezuela 100 000 netherlands 100 000 sudan 100 000 senegal 100 000 libya 100 000 history pre islamic antiquity starting in the 1st millennium bce aramaic was the dominant spoken language and the language of writing and administration in the levant 102 greek was the language of administration of the seleucid empire in the 3rd and 2nd centuries bce 103 and was maintained by the roman 64 bce 475 ce 104 105 then byzantine 476 640 105 104 empires 103 from the early 1st millennium bce until the 6th century ce there was a continuum of central semitic languages in the arabian peninsula and central arabia was home to languages quite distinct from arabic 106 because there are no written sources the history of levantine before the modern period is unknown 107 old arabic was a dialect continuum stretching from the southern levant where northern old arabic was spoken to the northern hijaz in the arabian peninsula where old hijazi was spoken 108 in the early 1st century ce a great variety of arabic dialects were already spoken by various nomadic or semi nomadic arabic tribes in the levant 109 110 57 such as the nabataeans 111 who used aramaic for official purposes 112 the tanukhids 111 and the ghassanids 80 these dialects were local coming from the hauran and not from the arabian peninsula 113 and related to later classical arabic 111 initially restricted to the steppe arabic speaking nomads started to settle in cities and fertile areas after the plague of justinian in 542 ce 113 these arab communities stretched from the southern extremities of the syrian desert to central syria the anti lebanon mountains and the beqaa valley 114 115 muslim conquest of the levant the muslim conquest of the levant 634 640 105 104 brought new groups of arabic speakers from the arabian peninsula who settled in the levant 116 arabic became the language of trade and public life in cities while western aramaic languages continued to be spoken at home and in the countryside 115 arabic gradually replaced early medieval greek as the language of administration in 700 by order of the umayyad caliph abd al malik ibn marwan 117 118 the language shift from aramaic to vernacular arabic was a long process over several generations with an extended period of multilingualism especially among non muslims 115 119 christians continued to speak syriac for about two centuries and syriac remained their literary language until the 14th century 120 118 in its spoken form aramaic nearly disappeared except for a few western neo aramaic speaking villages 118 but it has left substrate influences on levantine 119 different peninsular arabic dialects competed for prestige in the levant including the old hijazi arabic of the umayyad elites these peninsular dialects mixed with ancient levantine forms of arabic 121 by the mid 6th century the petra papyri show that the onset of the article and its vowel seem to have weakened the article is sometimes written as el or simply l a similar but not identical situation is found in the texts from the islamic period unlike the pre islamic attestations the coda of the article in conquest arabic assimilates to a following coronal consonant 122 according to pr simon hopkins this document shows that there is a very impressive continuity in colloquial arabic usage and the roots of the modern vernaculars are thus seen to lie very deep 123 medieval and early modern era the damascus psalm fragment dated to the 9th century but possibly earlier sheds light on the damascus dialect of that period because its arabic text is written in greek characters it reveals the pronunciation of the time 124 it features many examples of imāla the fronting and raising of a toward i 125 it also features a pre grammarian standard of arabic and the dialect from which it sprung likely old hijazi 126 scholars disagree on the dates of phonological changes the shift of interdental spirants to dental stops dates to the 9th to 10th centuries or earlier 127 the shift from q to a glottal stop is dated between the 11th and 15th centuries 128 imāla seems already important in pre islamic times 125 swedish orientalist carlo landberg sv writes about the vulgarisms encountered in damascene poet usama ibn munqidh s memoirs all of them are found in today s spoken language of syria and it is very interesting to note that that language is on the whole not very different from the language of ˀusāma s days in the 12th century 123 lucas caballero s compendio 1709 describes spoken damascene arabic in the early 1700s it corresponds to modern damascene in some respects such as the allomorphic variation between a e in the feminine suffix while the insertion and deletion of vowels differ 129 from 1516 to 1918 the ottoman empire dominated the levant many western words entered arabic through ottoman turkish as it was the main language for transmitting western ideas into the arab world 130 131 20th and 21st centuries the dissolution of the ottoman empire in the early 20th century reduced the use of turkish words due to arabization and the negative perception of the ottoman era among arabs 132 with the french mandate for syria and the lebanon 1920 1946 133 the british protectorate over jordan 1921 1946 and the british mandate for palestine 1923 1948 french and english words gradually entered levantine arabic 3 134 similarly modern hebrew has significantly influenced the palestinian dialect of arab israelis since the establishment of israel in 1948 135 in the 1960s said akl inspired by the maltese and turkish alphabets 136 designed a new latin alphabet for lebanese and promoted the official use of lebanese instead of msa 137 but this movement was unsuccessful 138 139 although levantine dialects have remained stable over the past two centuries in cities such as amman 66 and damascus language standardization occurs through variant reduction and linguistic homogenization among the various religious groups and neighborhoods urbanization and the increasing proportion of youth i constitute the causes of dialect change 76 23 urban forms are considered more prestigious 141 and prestige dialects of the capitals are replacing the rural varieties 49 with the emergence of social media the amount of written levantine has also significantly increased online 142 status and usage diglossia and code switching levantine is not recognized in any state or territory 143 24 msa is the sole official language in jordan lebanon palestine and syria 24 it has a special status in israel under the basic law 144 french is also recognized in lebanon 95 in turkey the only official language is turkish 60 any variation from msa is considered a dialect of arabic 145 as in the rest of the arab world this linguistic situation has been described as diglossia msa is nobody s first acquired language 146 it is learned through formal instruction rather than transmission from parent to child 146 this diglossia has been compared to the use of latin as the sole written official liturgical and literary language in europe during the medieval period while romance languages were the spoken languages 147 148 levantine and msa are mutually unintelligible 149 150 they differ significantly in their phonology morphology lexicon and syntax 2 47 151 msa is the language of literature official documents and formal written media newspapers instruction leaflets school books 146 in spoken form msa is mostly used when reading from a scripted text e g news bulletins and for prayer and sermons in the mosque or church 146 in israel hebrew is the language used in the public sphere except internally among the arab communities 144 152 levantine is the usual medium of communication in all other domains 146 traditionally in the arab world colloquial varieties such as levantine have been regarded as corrupt forms of msa less eloquent and not fit for literature and thus looked upon with disdain 153 154 because the french and the british emphasized vernaculars when they colonized the arab world vernaculars were also seen as a tool of colonialism and imperialism 155 156 writing in the vernacular has been controversial because pan arab nationalists consider that this might divide the arab people into different nations 157 143 on the other hand classical arabic is seen as the language of the quran and revered by muslims who form the majority of the population 157 it is believed to be pure and everlasting and islamic religious ideology considers vernaculars to be inferior 158 159 until recently the use of levantine in formal settings or written form was often ideologically motivated for instance in opposition to pan arabism 159 language attitudes are shifting and using levantine became de ideologized for most speakers by the late 2010s 159 levantine is now regarded in a more positive light and its use in informal modes of writing is acknowledged thanks to its recent widespread use online in both written and spoken forms 160 161 code switching between levantine msa english french in lebanon and among arab christians in syria 57 and hebrew in israel 162 10 is frequent among levantine speakers in both informal and formal settings such as on television 163 gordon cites two lebanese examples bonjour ya habibti how are you hello my love how are you and oui but leish yes but why 164 code switching also happens in politics for instance not all politicians master msa in lebanon so they rely on lebanese many public and formal speeches and most political talk shows are in lebanese instead of msa 58 in israel arabic and hebrew are allowed in the knesset but arabic is rarely used 165 mk ahmad tibi often adds palestinian arabic sentences to his hebrew speech but only gives partial speeches in arabic 166 education in the levant msa is the only variety authorized for use in schools 146 although in practice lessons are often taught in a mix of msa and levantine with for instance the lesson read out in msa and explained in levantine 57 24 in lebanon about 50 of school students study in french 167 in most arab universities the medium of instruction is msa in social sciences and humanities and english or french in the applied and medical sciences in syria only msa is used 146 168 80 in turkey article 42 9 of the constitution prohibits languages other than turkish from being taught as a mother tongue and almost all indigenous arabic speakers are illiterate in the arabic script unless they have learned it for religious purposes 71 in israel msa is the only language of instruction in arab schools hebrew is studied as a second language by all palestinian students from at least the second grade and english from the third grade 169 152 in jewish schools in 2012 23 000 pupils were studying spoken palestinian in 800 elementary schools palestinian arabic is compulsory in jewish elementary schools in the northern district otherwise jewish schools teach msa 170 junior high schools must teach all students msa but only two thirds meet this obligation 171 at all stages in 2012 141 000 jewish students were learning arabic 172 in 2020 3 7 of jewish students took the bagrut exam in msa 171 films and music most films and songs are in vernacular arabic 27 egypt was the most influential center of arab media productions movies drama tv series during the 20th century 173 but levantine is now competing with egyptian 174 as of 2013 about 40 of all music production in the arab world was in lebanese 173 lebanese television is the oldest and largest private arab broadcast industry 175 most big budget pan arab entertainment shows are filmed in the lebanese dialect in the studios of beirut moreover the syrian dialect dominates in syrian tv series such as bab al hara and in the dubbing of turkish television dramas such as noor famous across the arab world 173 176 as of 2009 update most arabic satellite television networks use colloquial varieties in their programs except news bulletins in msa the use of vernacular in broadcasting started in lebanon during the lebanese civil war and expanded to the rest of the arab world in 2009 al jazeera used msa only and al arabiya and al manar used msa or a hybrid between msa and colloquial for talk shows 163 on the popular lebanese satellite channel lebanese broadcasting corporation international lbci arab and international news bulletins are only in msa while the lebanese national news broadcast is in a mix of msa and lebanese arabic 177 written media levantine is seldom written except for some novels plays and humorous writings 178 179 most arab critics do not acknowledge the literary dignity of prose in vernacular 180 prose written in lebanese goes back to at least 1892 when tannus al hurr published riwāyat aš šābb as sikkīr ʾay qiṣṣat naṣṣūr as sikrī the tale of the drunken youth or the story of nassur the drunkard 179 in the 1960s said akl led a movement in lebanon to replace msa as the national and literary language and a handful of writers wrote in lebanese 181 182 179 foreign works such as la fontaine s fables were translated into lebanese using akl s alphabet 183 the gospel of mark was published in palestinian in 1940 184 followed by the gospel of matthew and the letter of james in 1946 185 186 the four gospels were translated in lebanese using akl s alphabet in 1996 by gilbert khalifé muris awwad translated the four gospels and the little prince in 2001 in lebanese in arabic script 187 179 the little prince was also translated into palestinian and published in two biscriptal editions one arabic hebrew script one arabic latin script 188 189 190 newspapers usually use msa and reserve levantine for sarcastic commentaries and caricatures 191 headlines in levantine are common the letter to the editor section often includes entire paragraphs in levantine many newspapers also regularly publish personal columns in levantine such as خرم إبرة xurm ʾibra lit through the needle s eye in the weekend edition of al ayyam 192 from 1983 to 1990 said akl s newspaper lebnaan was published in lebanese written in the latin alphabet 193 levantine is also commonly used in zajal and other forms of oral poetry 194 57 zajal written in vernacular was published in lebanese newspapers such as al mashriq the levant from 1898 and ad dabbur the hornet from 1925 in the 1940s five reviews in beirut were dedicated exclusively to poetry in lebanese 179 in a 2013 study abuhakema investigated 270 written commercial ads in two jordanian al ghad and ad dustour and two palestinian al quds and al ayyam daily newspapers the study concluded that msa is still the most used variety in ads although both varieties are acceptable and levantine is increasingly used 195 196 most comedies are written in levantine 197 in syria plays became more common and p...