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ndia iranian greater iran religion and mythology reconstructed proto indo european mythology proto indo iranian religion historical hittite indo aryan vedic hinduism non vedic greater magadha śramaṇa iranian ancient persian zoroastrianism kurdish yazidism yarsanism scythian ossetian others armenian european paleo balkan albanian illyrian thracian dacian greek roman celtic irish scottish breton welsh cornish germanic anglo saxon continental norse baltic latvian lithuanian slavic practices fire rituals horse sacrifice sati winter solstice yule indo european studies scholars marija gimbutas j p mallory institutes copenhagen studies in indo european publications encyclopedia of indo european culture the horse the wheel and language journal of indo european studies indogermanisches etymologisches wörterbuch indo european etymological dictionary category v t e the indo aryan languages or sometimes indic languages a are a branch of the indo iranian languages in the indo european language family as of the early 21st century there were 800 million speakers primarily concentrated east of the indus river in south asia spread across eastern pakistan northern india southern nepal bangladesh sri lanka and maldives 1 moreover apart from the indian subcontinent large immigrant and expatriate indo aryan speaking communities live in northwestern europe western asia north america the caribbean southeast africa polynesia and australia along with several million speakers of romani languages primarily concentrated in southeastern europe there are in the vicinity of 200 indo aryan languages 4 proto indo aryan was very close to vedic sanskrit though some of the later prakrits retain features that had been lost from vedic sanskrit showing that they had a separate descent from proto indo aryan 5 6 7 8 the largest such languages in terms of first speakers are hindustani hindi urdu c 330 million 9 bengali 242 million 10 punjabi about 150 million 11 12 marathi 112 million and gujarati 60 million a 2005 estimate placed the total number of native speakers of the indo aryan languages at nearly 900 million people 13 other estimates are higher suggesting a figure of 1 5 billion speakers of indo aryan languages 14 classification edit theories edit classification tree of the indo aryan languages the indo aryan family as a whole is thought to represent a dialect continuum where languages are often transitional towards neighbouring varieties 15 because of this the division into languages vs dialects is in many cases somewhat arbitrary the classification of the indo aryan languages is controversial with many transitional areas that are assigned to different branches depending on classification 16 there are concerns that a tree model is insufficient for explaining the development of new indo aryan with some scholars suggesting the wave model 17 subgroups edit the following table of proposals is expanded from masica 1991 from hoernlé to turner and also includes subsequent classification proposals the table lists only some modern indo aryan languages indo aryan subgroups model odia bengali assamese bihari e hindi w hindi rajasthani gujarati pahari e punjabi w punjabi sindhi dardic marathi konkani sinhala dhivehi romani hoernlé 1880 e e w w n w w s grierson 1927 e c e c nw non ia s non ia chatterji 1926 e midland sw n nw non ia s nw grierson 1931 e inter midland inter nw non ia s non ia katre 1968 e c nw dardic s nigam 1972 e c c nw c nw n s cardona 1974 e c s w nw s w turner 1975 e c sw c c nw w nw sw c kausen 2006 e c w n nw dardic s romani kogan 2016 e c c nw nw c nw c nw non ia s insular c ethnologue 2020 18 e ec c w ec e w c w w nw s w glottolog 2024 19 e midland n nw dardic s dhivehi sinhala midland anton i kogan in 2016 conducted a lexicostatistical study of the new indo aryan languages based on a 100 word swadesh list using techniques developed by the glottochronologist and comparative linguist sergei starostin 17 that grouping system is notable for kogan s exclusion of dardic from indo aryan on the basis of his previous studies showing low lexical similarity to indo aryan 43 5 and negligible difference with similarity to iranian 39 3 20 he also calculated sinhala dhivehi to be the most divergent indo aryan branch nevertheless the modern consensus of indo aryan linguists tends towards the inclusion of dardic based on morphological and grammatical features citation needed inner outer hypothesis edit main article inner outer hypothesis the inner outer hypothesis argues for a core and periphery of indo aryan languages with outer indo aryan generally including eastern and southern indo aryan and sometimes northwestern indo aryan dardic and pahari representing an older stratum of old indo aryan that has been mixed to varying degrees with the newer stratum that is inner indo aryan it is a contentious proposal with a long history with varying degrees of claimed phonological and morphological evidence since its proposal by rudolf hoernlé in 1880 and refinement by george grierson it has undergone numerous revisions and a great deal of debate with the most recent iteration by franklin southworth and claus peter zoller based on robust linguistic evidence particularly an outer past tense in l some of the theory s sceptics include suniti kumar chatterji and colin p masica citation needed groups edit the below classification follows masica 1991 and kausen 2006 percentage of indo aryan speakers by native language hindustani hindi urdu 25 4 bengali 20 7 punjabi 9 40 marathi 5 60 gujarati 3 80 bhojpuri 3 10 maithili 2 60 odia 2 50 sindhi 1 90 other 25 0 dardic edit main article dardic languages the dardic languages also dardu or pisaca are a group of indo aryan languages largely spoken in the northwestern extremities of the indian subcontinent dardic was first formulated by george abraham grierson in his linguistic survey of india but he did not consider it to be a subfamily of indo aryan the dardic group as a genetic grouping rather than areal has been scrutinised and questioned to a degree by recent scholarship southworth for example says the viability of dardic as a genuine subgroup of indo aryan is doubtful and the similarities among dardic languages may result from subsequent convergence 21 149 the dardic languages are thought to be transitional with punjabi and pahari e g zoller describes kashmiri as an interlink between dardic and west pahāṛī 22 83 as well as non indo aryan nuristani and are renowned for their relatively conservative features in the context of proto indo aryan kashmiri kashmiri kishtwari pogali shina brokskad kundal shahi shina ushoji kalkoti palula savi chitrali kalasha khowar kohistani bateri chilisso gowro indus kohistani kalami tirahi torwali wotapuri katarqalai pashayi kunar dameli gawar bati nangalami shumashti northern zone edit main article northern indo aryan languages the northern indo aryan languages also known as the pahari hill languages are spoken throughout the himalayan regions of the subcontinent eastern pahari nepali jumli doteli central pahari garhwali kumaoni western pahari dogri kangri bhadarwahi churahi bhateali bilaspuri chambeali gaddi pangwali mandeali mahasu pahari jaunsari kullui pahari kinnauri hinduri sarazi sirmauri northwestern zone edit northwestern indo aryan languages are spoken in the northwestern region of india and eastern region of pakistan punjabi is spoken predominantly in the punjab region and is the official language of the northern indian state of punjab in addition to being the most widely spoken language in pakistan sindhi and its variants are spoken natively in the pakistani province of sindh and neighbouring regions northwestern languages are ultimately thought to be descended from paishachi prakrit some scholars still argue for shaureshani as the antecedent with influence from persian and arabic 23 punjabi central majhi eastern doabi malwai puadhi western inku saraiki multani riasti derawali dhanni jhangvi shahpuri thali north western hindko kohati ghebi awankari chachhi peshawari hazarvi pahari pothwari sindhi sindhi jadgali kutchi luwati memoni khetrani kholosi western zone edit western indo aryan languages are spoken in central and western india in states such as madhya pradesh and rajasthan in addition to contiguous regions in pakistan gujarati is the official language of gujarat and is spoken by over 50 million people in europe various romani languages are spoken by the romani people an itinerant community who historically migrated from india the western indo aryan languages have diverged from their northwestern counterparts the western languages origin is frequently debated whether they come from abhiri saurastri prakrit or shaureshani prakrit rajasthani bagri marwari mewati dhundari harauti mewari shekhawati dhatki malvi nimadi gujari goaria loarki bhoyari pawari kanjari od lambadi gujarati gujarati jandavra saurashtra aer vaghri parkari koli kachi koli wadiyara koli bhil kalto vasavi wagdi gamit vaagri booli northern bhil bauria bhilori magari central bhil bhili proper bhilali chodri dhodia dhanki dubli bareli palya bareli pauri bareli rathwi bareli pardhi khandeshi domaaki domari romani carpathian romani balkan romani vlax romani baltic romani northern romani british romani angloromani welsh romani northwestern romani sinte romani finnish kalo central zone edit main article central indo aryan languages within india central indo aryan languages are spoken primarily in the western gangetic plains including delhi and parts of the central highlands where they are often transitional with neighbouring lects many of these languages including braj and awadhi have rich literary and poetic traditions urdu a persianised derivative of dehlavi descended from shauraseni prakrit is the official language of pakistan and also has strong historical connections to india where it also has been designated with official status hindi a standardised and sanskritised register of dehlavi is the official language of the government of india along with english together with urdu it is the third most spoken language in the world western hindi hindustani including standard hindi and standard urdu khariboli braj haryanvi bundeli kannauji parya sansi eastern hindi bagheli chhattisgarhi surgujia awadhi fiji hindi caribbean hindustani eastern zone edit main article eastern indo aryan languages the eastern indo aryan languages also known as magadhan languages are spoken throughout the eastern subcontinent alongside other regions surrounding the northwestern himalayan corridor bengali is the seventh most spoken language in the world and has a strong literary tradition the national anthems of india and bangladesh are written in bengali assamese and odia are the official languages of assam and odisha respectively the eastern indo aryan languages descend from magadhan apabhraṃśa 24 and ultimately from magadhi prakrit 25 26 24 eastern indo aryan languages display many morphosyntactic features similar to those of munda languages which are largely absent in western indo aryan languages it is suggested that proto munda languages may have once dominated the eastern indo gangetic plain and were then absorbed by indo aryan languages at an early date as indo aryan spread east 27 28 bengali assamese bengali gauda bengali bangali rarhi sundarbani varendri manbhumi dhakaiya kutti mymensinghi dobhashi noakhali chittagonian sylheti bishnupriya manipuri hajong chakma tanchangya thar rohingya kamarupic assamese eastern central kamrupi dehan east goalparia kamtapuri surjapuri rajbanshi bihari bhojpuri caribbean hindustani fiji hindi magahi khortha maithili angika bajjika thethi dehati sadanic nagpuri kurmali panchpargania tharu 29 kochila tharu rana tharu kathariya tharu sonha tharu dangaura tharu chitwania buksa majhi musasa kumhali kuswaric 30 danwar bote darai halbic halbi kamar bhunjia nahari odia baleswari kataki ganjami sundargadi sambalpuri desia bodo parja bhatri reli kupia southern zone edit marathi konkani languages are ultimately descended from maharashtri prakrit whereas insular indo aryan languages are descended from elu prakrit and possess several characteristics that markedly distinguish them from most of their mainland indo aryan counterparts insular indo aryan languages of sri lanka and maldives started developing independently and diverging from the continental indo aryan languages from around 5th century bce 17 marathi konkani marathic marathi varhadi andh agri zadi boli thanjavur berar deccan marathi phudagi judeo katkari varli kadodi konkanic konkani karnataki konkani maharashtrian konkani insular indo aryan sinhalese maldivian sinhala and creole vedda dhivehi dialects include malé and addu unclassified edit the following languages are otherwise unclassified within indo aryan chinali lahul lohar 31 chinali lahul lohar bazigar sheikhgal history edit this section needs more citations please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed february 2017 learn how and when to remove this message indian subcontinent edit see also linguistic history of india dates indicate only a rough time frame proto indo aryan before 1500 bce reconstructed old indo aryan c 1500 500 bce early old indo aryan includes vedic sanskrit c 1500 to 500 bce late old indo aryan epic sanskrit classical sanskrit c 200 ce to 1300 ce mitanni indo aryan c 1400 bce middle indo aryan or prakrits c 600 bce to 1400 ce early middle indo aryan e g early jain and buddhist texts c 6th or 5th century bce ashokan prakrits pali gandhari c 600 bce to 200 bce middle middle indo aryan e g dramatic prakrits elu c 300 bce to 700 ce late middle indo aryan e g abahattha c 600 ce to 1400 ce early modern indo aryan late medieval india e g early dakhini and emergence of the dehlavi dialect early indo european migrations from the pontic caspian steppe proto indo aryan edit main article proto indo aryan language proto indo aryan or sometimes proto indic a is the reconstructed proto language of the indo aryan languages it is intended to reconstruct the language of the pre vedic indo aryans proto indo aryan is meant to be the predecessor of old indo aryan 1500 300 bce which is directly attested as vedic and mitanni aryan despite the great archaicity of vedic however the other indo aryan languages preserve a small number of conservative features lost in vedic mitanni aryan hypothesis edit main article indo aryan superstrate in mitanni some theonyms proper names and other terminology of the late bronze age mitanni civilisation of upper mesopotamia exhibit an indo aryan superstrate while what few written records left by the mittani are either in hurrian which appears to have been the predominant language of their kingdom or akkadian the main diplomatic language of the late bronze age near east these apparently indo aryan names suggest that an indo aryan elite imposed itself over the hurrians in the course of the in...