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Text of the page (random words):
general what links here related changes upload file permanent link page information cite this page get shortened url switch to legacy parser print export download as pdf printable version in other projects wikidata item appearance move to sidebar hide from wikipedia the free encyclopedia idiolect used by a second language learner for other uses see interlanguage disambiguation not to be confused with interlingua an interlanguage is an idiolect developed by a learner of a second language l2 which preserves some features of their first language l1 and can overgeneralize some l2 writing and speaking rules these two characteristics give an interlanguage its unique linguistic organization it is idiosyncratically based on the learner s experiences with l2 an interlanguage can fossilize or cease developing in any of its developmental stages several factors can shape interlanguage rules including l1 transfer previous learning strategies strategies of l2 acquisition l2 communication strategies and the overgeneralization of l2 language patterns interlanguage theory posits that a dormant psychological framework in the human brain is activated with study of a second language the theory is credited to larry selinker who coined the terms interlanguage and fossilization uriel weinreich is credited with providing the basis for selinker s research selinker noted in 1972 that in a given situation the utterances of a learner differ from those of a native speaker to convey an identical meaning this comparison suggests a separate linguistic system which can be observed in the utterances of a learner attempting to convey meaning in l2 it is not seen when the learner performs form focused tasks such as oral drills in a classroom interlanguage can vary in different contexts and may be more accurate complex and fluent in one domain than in another a learner s interlanguage utterances may be compared with two things utterances in l1 to convey the message produced by the learner and utterances by a native speaker of l2 to convey the same message an interlanguage perspective may be used to view a learner s underlying knowledge of the target language sound system interlanguage phonology grammar morphology and syntax vocabulary lexicon and linguistic norms interlanguage pragmatics by describing how learner language conforms to universal linguistic norms interlanguage research has contributed to the understanding of linguistic universals in second language acquisition background edit the principal theory of second language l2 development had been contrastive analysis which assumed that learner errors were caused by the difference between l1 their first language and l2 it was deficit focused speech errors were thought to arise randomly and should be corrected 1 it was further assumed that a thorough analysis of the differences between a learner s l1 and l2 could predict the difficulties they would face 2 this assumption was often anecdotal and research claims were prone to confirmation bias 2 in 1957 robert lado said that contrastive analysis should be viewed as hypothetical unless it was based on systematic analyses of learner speech data 2 around this time second language acquisition research shifted from hypotheses of language learning and development of language teaching materials to the systematic analysis of learner speech and writing with error analysis 2 this was initially done to validate contrastive analysis but researchers found that many learner behaviors could not be easily explained by transfer from a learner s l1 to l2 2 the idea that a language learner s linguistic system differed from l1 and l2 was developed independently at around the same time by several researchers 2 william nemser called it an approximative system and pit corder termed it transitional competence variability edit interlanguage is said to be a language in its own right and l2 varies much more than l1 selinker wrote that in a given situation the utterances of a learner differ from what a native speaker would produce to convey the same meaning 3 this comparison reveals a separate linguistic system 4 interlanguage varies by context and may be more accurate complex and fluent in one discourse domain than in another 5 variability is observed when comparing a learner s conversational utterances with form focused tasks such as memory based oral drills in a classroom spontaneous conversations are more likely to use interlanguage a learner may produce a target like variant e g i don t in one context and a non target like variant me no in another scholars differ about the importance of this phenomenon those with a chomskyan perspective on second language acquisition typically regard variability as performance errors unworthy of systematic inquiry those with a sociolinguistic or psycholinguistic orientation view variability as an inherent feature of a learner s interlanguage a learner s preference for one linguistic variant over another can depend on social contextual variables such as the status or role of the person to whom the learner is speaking 6 preference may also be based on linguistic variables such as the phonological environment or neighboring features denoting formality or informality 7 variability in learner language distinguishes between free variation not systematically related to accompanying linguistic or social features and systematic variation which is systematically related free variation edit free variation in the use of a language feature is usually taken as a sign that it has not been fully acquired the learner is still figuring out which rules govern the use of alternate forms systematic variation edit systematic variation is brought about by changes in linguistic psychological and social context linguistic factors are usually local for example a learner in an earlier stage of acquisition will often systematically vary the correct tense 8 they may say last year we travel to the ocean rather than last year we travelled to the ocean learners also tend to make more mistakes when the word following a tensed word begins with a consonant e g burned bacon and have greater accuracy when the word following the tensed word begins with a vowel burned eggs citation needed other factors edit social factors may include a change in the register or the familiarity of interlocutors according to communication accommodation theory a learner may adapt their speech to converge with or diverge from their interlocutor s usage for example they may deliberately use a non target form like me no to an english teacher to assert their identity with a non mainstream ethnic group 9 the most important psychological factor is usually regarded as attention to form which is related to planning time the more time that learners have to plan the more target like their production may be literate learners may produce more target like forms in a writing task for which they have 30 minutes to plan than in a conversation where they must produce language with almost no planning at all the impact of alphabetic literacy on an l2 learner s ability to pay attention to form is unclear 10 affective factors also play a role in systematic variation learners in a stressful situation such as a formal exam may produce fewer target like forms than they would in a comfortable setting this interacts with social factors and attitudes toward the interlocutor and topic also play a role stages of development edit individuals learning a second language may not always hear spoken l2 words as separate units 11 some words might blend and become a single unit in the learner s l2 system these blended words are known as prefabricated patterns or chunks these chunks are often not immediately obvious to the learner or a person who hears them speak but may become noticeable as the learner s l2 system develops and they use the chunk inappropriately if an english learner hears sentences beginning with do you they may hear it as indicating a question not as two separate words to them the word is doyou they may say what do you doing instead of what are you doing the learner may eventually learn to break down the chunk into its component words and use them correctly when learners significantly restructure their l2 systems they sometimes develop a u shaped learning pattern a group of english learners moved over time from accurate use of the ing present progressive morpheme to incorrectly omitting it before finally returning to the correct use 12 the period of incorrect use is sometimes seen as a learning regression 13 when the learners first acquired the new ing morpheme or chunk however they were probably not aware of all the rules governing its use their increasing knowledge of tense in english disrupted their correct use of the morpheme and they eventually returned to correct use when they had a greater understanding of english language tense rules the learners were evidently initially memorizing individual words with the present progressive ing morpheme at a later stage however their systems had the rule that they should use the infinitive to express present action without a separate rule governing ing finally they learned the rule for the appropriate use of ing the chunking method enables a learner to practice speaking l2 before they can break a chunk down into its parts according to interlanguage theory this apparent progression and regression of language learning indicates the learner s increased understanding of l2 grammar fossilization edit an interlanguage can fossilize or cease developing at any developmental stage fossilization is freezing the transition between l1 and l2 it is the final stage of interlanguage development and can occur even in motivated learners who are continuously exposed to l2 and have adequate learning support 14 it may be due to complacency or an inability to overcome obstacles to attain full proficiency in l2 fossilization often occurs in adult language learners and can occur when the learner succeeds in conveying messages with their current l2 proficiency without a need to correct form or structure the learner fossilizes instead of correcting linguistic universals edit research on universal grammar ug has influenced second language acquisition sla theory and interlanguage scholarship has sought to demonstrate that learner languages conform to ug throughout development 15 interlanguage ug differs from native ug in that interlanguage ugs vary in mental representations from one l2 user to another 15 this variability arises from different relative influences on the interlanguage ug such as existing l1 knowledge and ug constraints an example of a ug constraint is an island constraint where the wh phrase in a question has a finite number of possible positions island constraints are based on the concept that syntactical domains in a sentence act as phrase boundaries and it is theorized that the same constraints on a native ug are often present in an interlanguage ug relationship to creoles and pidgins edit interlanguage is related to other types of language particularly creoles and pidgins each has its own grammar and phonology the difference is mainly variability since a learner s interlanguage is spoken only by the learner and changes as they become more proficient in l2 creoles and pidgins are generally the product of groups of people in contact with another language however and may be more stable citation needed see also edit code switching franglais fremdsprachen und hochschule language transfer macaronic language multilingualism second language acquisition spanglish translanguaging media lengua notes edit loewen shawn reinders hayo 2011 key concepts in second language acquisition new york palgrave macmillan p 98 isbn 978 0 230 23018 7 cite book cs1 maint multiple names authors list link 1 2 3 4 5 6 tarone 2006 selinker l 1972 interlanguage international review of applied linguistics 10 1 4 209 241 doi 10 1515 iral 1972 10 1 4 209 tarone e 2010 interlanguage in berns margie ed the concise encyclopedia of applied linguistics oxford elsevier p 135 isbn 978 0 08 096502 4 kasper gabriele blum kulka shoshana eds 1993 interlanguage pragmatics new york oxford university press p 192 isbn 0 19 506602 2 kasper gabriele blum kulka shoshana eds 1993 interlanguage pragmatics new york oxford university press p 8 isbn 0 19 506602 2 fasold r preston d 2007 the psycholinguistic unity of inherent variability old occam whips out his razor in bayley r lucas c eds sociolinguistic variation theory methods and applications cambridge cambridge university press pp 45 69 wolfram walt 1989 systematic variability in second language tense marking in eisenstein miriam r ed the dynamic interlanguage empirical studies in second language variation new york plenum press isbn 0 306 43174 2 rampton ben 2005 crossing language ethnicity among adolescents 2 ed manchester st jerome pub isbn 9781900650779 tarone elaine bigelow martha hansen kit 2009 literacy and second language oracy oxford oxford university press isbn 978 0 19 442300 7 altarriba jeanette heredia roberto r eds 2008 an introduction to bilingualism principles and practices new york lawrence erlbaum associates isbn 978 0 8058 5135 9 lightbown p 1983 exploring relationships between developmental and instructional sequences in l2 acquisition in seliger h long m h eds classroom oriented research in second language acquisition rowley ma newbury house altarriba jeanette heredia roberto r eds 2008 an introduction to bilingualism principles and processes new york lawrence erlbaum associates isbn 978 0 8058 5135 9 han zhaohong 2004 fossilization in adult second language acquisition online ed clevedon multilingual matters pp 12 24 isbn 1 85359 686 8 1 2 vanpatten bill williams jessica 2015 theories in second language acquisition an introduction 2 ed new york routledge isbn 978 0 415 82421 7 references edit fasold r preston d 2007 the psycholinguistic unity of inherent variability old occam whips out his razor in bayley r lucas c eds sociolinguistic variation theory methods and applications cambridge cambridge university press pp 45 69 lightbown p 1983 exploring relationships between developmental and instructional sequences in l2 acquisition in seliger h long m h eds classroom oriented research in second language acquisition rowley ma newbury house pp 217 243 rampton b 1995 crossing language and ethnicity among adolescents london longman isbn 978 1900650 779 selinker l 1972 interlanguage international review of applied linguistics 10 209 231 selinker l douglas d 1985 wrestling with context in interlanguage theory applied linguistics 6 190 204 tarone e 1979 interlanguage as chameleon language learning 29 1 181 191 tarone e liu g q 1995 situational context variation and second language acquisition theory in g cook b seidlhofer eds principles and practice in the study of language and learning a festschrift for h g widdowson pp 107 124 oxford oxford university press tarone el...