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rger when the knights of the first crusade came to besiege jerusalem one of dolberger s family members rescued german speaking jews in palestine and brought them back to the safety of worms germany to repay the favor 42 further evidence of german communities in the holy city comes in the form of halakic questions sent from germany to jerusalem during the second half of the eleventh century 43 all of the foregoing resulted in an explosion of new ideas and philosophic paths yosef shlomo ben eliyahu dal medigo edit joseph solomon delmedigo was a physician and teacher baruch spinoza was a student of his works 44 baruch spinoza edit baruch spinoza baruch spinoza founded spinozism broke with rabbinic jewish tradition and was placed in herem by the beit din of amsterdam the influence in his work from maimonides and leone ebreo is evident elia del medigo claims to be a student of the works of spinoza some contemporary critics e g wachter der spinozismus im judenthum claimed to detect the influence of the kabbalah while others e g leibniz regarded spinozism as a revival of averroism a talmudist manner of referencing to maimonidean rationalism in the centuries that have lapsed since the herem declaration scholars who have re examined the works of spinoza and find them to reflect a body of work and thinking that is not unlike some contemporary streams of judaism for instance while spinoza was accused of pantheism scholars who have come to view his work as advocating panentheism a valid contemporary view easily accommodated by contemporary judaism tzvi hirsch ben yaakov ashkenazi edit rabbi tzvi hirsch ben yaakov ashkenazi was a student of his father but most notably also a student of his grandfather rabbi elijah ba al shem of chelm jacob emden edit rabbi jacob emden was a student of his father rabbi tzvi hirsch ben yaakov ashkenazi a rabbi in amsterdam emden a steadfast talmudist was a prominent opponent of the sabbateans messianic kabbalists who followed sabbatai tzvi although anti maimonidean emden should be noted for his critical examination of the zohar concluding that large parts of it were forged other seventeenth century jewish philosophers edit jacob abendana sephardic rabbi and philosopher isaac cardoso david nieto sephardic rabbi and philosopher isaac orobio de castro sephardic rabbi and philosopher philosophical criticisms of kabbalah edit main article kabbalah rabbi leone di modena wrote that if we who were to accept the kabbalah then the christian trinity would indeed be compatible with judaism as the trinity closely resembles the kabbalistic doctrine of the sefirot eighteenth and nineteenth century jewish philosophy edit dessau emden bonn coswig anhalt seesen altona hamburg frankfurt mainz katzenelnbogen germany centers of jewish scholarship london london in modern united kingdom a new era began in the 18th century with the thought of moses mendelssohn mendelssohn has been described as the third moses with whom begins a new era in judaism just as new eras began with moses the prophet and with moses maimonides 45 mendelssohn was a german jewish philosopher to whose ideas the renaissance of european jews haskalah the jewish enlightenment is indebted he has been referred to as the father of reform judaism although reform spokesmen have been resistant to claim him as their spiritual father 46 mendelssohn came to be regarded as a leading cultural figure of his time by both germans and jews his most significant book was jerusalem oder über religiöse macht und judentum jerusalem first published in 1783 alongside mendelssohn other important jewish philosophers of the eighteenth century included menachem mendel lefin anti hasidic haskalah philosopher salomon maimon enlightenment philosopher isaac satanow a haskalah philosopher naphtali ullman haskalah philosopher 47 important jewish philosophers of the nineteenth century included elijah benamozegh a sephardic rabbi and philosopher hermann cohen a neo kantian jewish philosopher moses hess a secular jewish philosopher and one of the founders of socialism samson raphael hirsch leader of the torah im derech eretz school of 19th century neo orthodoxy samuel hirsch a leader of reform judaism nachman krochmal haskalah philosopher in galicia samuel david luzzatto a sephardic rabbi and philosopher karl marx german economist and jewish philosopher traditionalist attitudes towards philosophy edit main articles haredi judaism and hasidic philosophy haredi traditionalists who emerged in reaction to the haskalah considered the fusion of religion and philosophy as difficult because classical philosophers start with no preconditions for which conclusions they must reach in their investigation while classical religious believers have a set of religious principles of faith that they hold one must believe most haredim contended that one cannot simultaneously be a philosopher and a true adherent of a revealed religion in this view all attempts at synthesis ultimately fail rabbi nachman of breslov for example viewed all philosophy as untrue and heretical in this he represents one strand of hasidic thought with creative emphasis on the emotions other exponents of hasidism had a more positive attitude towards philosophy in the chabad writings of schneur zalman of liadi hasidut is seen as able to unite all parts of torah thought from the schools of philosophy to mysticism by uncovering the illuminating divine essence that permeates and transcends all approaches interpreting the verse from job from my flesh i see hashem shneur zalman explained the inner meaning or soul of the jewish mystical tradition in intellectual form by means of analogies drawn from the human realm as explained and continued by the later leaders of chabad this enabled the human mind to grasp concepts of godliness and so enable the heart to feel the love and awe of god emphasised by all the founders of hasidism in an internal way this development the culminating level of the jewish mystical tradition in this way bridges philosophy and mysticism by expressing the transcendent in human terms 20th and 21st century jewish philosophy edit jewish existentialism edit main article jewish existentialism a major trend in the timeline of modern jewish philosophy was the attempt to develop a theory of judaism based on existentialism among the early jewish existentialist philosophers was lev shestov born jehuda leib schwarzmann a russian jewish philosopher another of the most influential jewish existentialists in the first half of the 20th century was franz rosenzweig while researching his doctoral dissertation on the 19th century german philosopher georg wilhelm friedrich hegel rosenzweig reacted against hegel s idealism and developed an existential approach for a time rosenzweig considered conversion to christianity but in 1913 he turned to jewish philosophy he became a philosopher and student of hermann cohen rosenzweig s major work star of redemption expounded his philosophy portraying the relationships between god humanity and the world as they are connected by creation revelation and redemption orthodox rabbi joseph soloveitchik and conservative rabbis neil gillman and elliot n dorff have also been described as existentialists citation needed french philosopher and talmudic commentator emmanuel levinas whose approach grew out of the phenomenological tradition in philosophy has also been described as a jewish existentialist 48 jewish rationalism edit hermann cohen rationalism re emerged as a popular perspective among jews 49 contemporary jewish rationalism often draws on ideas associated with medieval philosophers such as maimonides and modern jewish rationalists such as hermann cohen cohen was a german jewish neo kantian philosopher who turned to jewish subjects at the end of his career in the early 20th century picking up on the ideas of maimonides in america steven schwarzschild continued cohen s legacy 50 another prominent contemporary jewish rationalist is lenn goodman who works out of the traditions of medieval jewish rationalist philosophy conservative rabbis alan mittleman of the jewish theological seminary 51 and elliot n dorff of american jewish university 52 also see themselves in the rationalist tradition as does david novak of the university of toronto 53 novak works in the natural law tradition which is one version of rationalism philosophers in israel in the rationalist tradition included david hartman 54 and moshe halbertal 55 ramat gan israel ramat gan in modern israel some orthodox rationalists in israel take a restorationist citation needed approach reaching back in time for tools to simplify rabbinic judaism and bring all jews regardless of status or stream of judaism closer to the observance of halakha mitzvot kashrut and maimonides jewish principles of faith dor daim and rambamists are two groups who reject mysticism as a superstitious innovation to an otherwise clear and succinct set of laws and rules according to them shame and disgrace are attached to failure to investigate matters of religious principle using the fullest powers of human reason and intellect one cannot be considered wise or perceptive if one does not attempt to understand the origins and establish the correctness of one s beliefs holocaust theology edit main article holocaust theology judaism traditionally holds that god is omnipotent omniscient and omnibenevolent these attributes raise complex questions about the existence of evil in the world a significant challenge for monotheistic faiths is reconciling the existence of positive divine characteristics with the reality of evil key questions include the relationship between good and bad and the interplay between god and the concept of a devil this is known as the problem of evil various theodicies have been proposed across monotheistic religions to address this issue the scale of suffering observed during events such as the holocaust has led many to re examine classical theological perspectives as a result there is a discussion surrounding jewish philosophies related to faith in the aftermath of the holocaust which is addressed in the field of holocaust theology reconstructionist theology edit main article reconstructionist judaism perhaps the most controversial form of jewish philosophy that developed in the early 20th century was the religious naturalism of rabbi mordecai kaplan whose theology was a variant of john dewey s pragmatist philosophy kaplan s naturalism combined nontheist metaphysics with religious terminology to construct a philosophy for those who had lost faith in traditional judaism in agreement with the classical medieval jewish thinkers kaplan affirmed that god is an impersonal being if a being at all and that all anthropomorphic descriptions of god are at best imperfect metaphors kaplan s theology went beyond this to claim that god is the sum of all natural processes that allow man to become self fulfilled writing that to believe in god means to take for granted that it is man s destiny to rise above the brute and to eliminate all forms of violence and exploitation from human society citation needed process theology edit a recent trend has been to reframe jewish theology through the lens of process philosophy more specifically process theology process philosophy suggests that fundamental elements of the universe are occasions of experience according to this notion what individuals consider concrete objects are successions of occasions of experience occasions of experience can be collected into groupings something complex such as a human being is thus a grouping of many smaller occasions of experience in this view everything in the universe is characterized by experience not to be confused with consciousness this system has no mind body duality because the mind is seen as a very developed kind of experiencing entity intrinsic to this worldview is the notion that prior experiences influence all experiences and will influence all future experiences this process of influencing is never deterministic an occasion of experience consists of comprehending other experiences and then reacting to them this is the process in process philosophy process philosophy gives god a special place in the universe of occasions of experience god encompasses all the other occasions of experience but also transcends them thus process philosophy is a form of panentheism the original ideas of process theology were developed by charles hartshorne 1897 2000 and influenced a number of jewish theologians including british philosopher samuel alexander 1859 1938 and rabbis max kadushin milton steinberg levi a olan harry slominsky and bradley shavit artson abraham joshua heschel has also been linked to this tradition 56 kabbalah and philosophy edit kabbalah continued to be central to haredi judaism which generally rejected philosophy the chabad strain of hasidic judaism showed a more positive attitude towards philosophy meanwhile non orthodox jewish thought in the latter 20th century saw resurgent interest in kabbalah in academic studies gershom scholem began the critical investigation of jewish mysticism while in non orthodox jewish denominations jewish renewal and neo hasidism spiritualised worship many philosophers who do not consider this a form of philosophy as kabbalah is a collection of esoteric methods of textual interpretation mysticism is generally understood as an alternative to philosophy not a variant of philosophy among the modern critics of kabbalah was yihhyah qafahh who wrote a book entitled milhamoth ha shem wars of the name against what he perceived as the false teachings of the zohar and the kabbalah of isaac luria he is credited with spearheading the dor daim yeshayahu leibowitz publicly shared the views expressed in rabbi yihhyah qafahh s book milhhamoth ha shem and elaborated upon these views in his many writings contemporary jewish philosophy edit philosophers who are associated with orthodox judaism edit main article orthodox jewish philosophy eliezer berkovits monsieur chouchani eliyahu dessler israel eldad elimelech of lizhensk david hartman samson raphael hirsch abraham isaac kook yeshayahu leibowitz menachem mendel of kotzk nachman of breslov franz rosenzweig tamar ross daniel rynhold menachem mendel schneerson joseph soloveitchik chaim volozhin michael wyschogrod shneur zalman of liadi philosophers who are associated with conservative judaism edit main article conservative judaism bradley shavit artson elliot n dorff neil gillman abraham joshua heschel william e kaufman max kadushin alan mittleman david novak ira f stone philosophers who are associated with reform and progressive judaism edit main articles reform judaism and reconstructionist judaism rachel adler american rabbi author and feminist philosopher leo baeck leader in german liberal judaism eugene borowitz leader in american reform judaism emil fackenheim german canadian israeli philosopher avigdor chaim gold ge...