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tion between languages is always possible even when there are no exact correspondences between the single words or concepts in the two languages 37 german linguist and philosopher helmut gipper de had studied with the neo humboldtian linguist leo weisgerber and had a basically kantian understanding of the relation between language and thought immanuel kant considered the categories of time and space to be universals underlying all human thinking 38 whorf s argument that the hopi do not conceive of time and space as speakers of indo european languages do clashed with this basic understanding of cognition gipper went to the hopi reservation to collect data for a general critique of whorf s principle of linguistic relativity published in 1972 his critique included a refutation of whorf s hopi arguments gipper showed that the hopi could refer to time by juxtaposing hopi phrases with their german equivalents that used words referring to units of time and to distinctions between past and present gipper also argued that several time intervals were described by nouns and that these nouns could take the role of syntactic subject or object in contradiction of whorf s explicit statement he argues that whorf s assertion that intervals of time are not counted in the same way as objects is questionable 39 ekkehart malotki edit ekkehart malotki studied with gipper at the westfälische wilhelms universität at münster and his work was a continuation of his mentor s spurred on by the frequent claims in the popular literature that the hopi have no concept of time malotki conducted four years of research on the third mesa studying hopi spatial and temporal reference he published two large volumes one in german hopi raum 40 hopi space and one in english hopi time 3 for malotki it was imperative to demonstrate two facts in contradiction of whorf s claims 1 that the hopi language has an abundance of terms words and constructions that refer to time 2 that the hopi do cognitively conceptualize time in analogy with physical space using spatial metaphors to describe durations and units of time he also wanted to demonstrate that whorf misanalyzed several particularities regarding specific hopi words and expressions malotki states that a main goal is to present actual hopi language data since when he was writing very little textual data in hopi had been published and whorf s publications were largely without text examples 41 hopi time opens with a quotation drawn from his extensive field work which directly challenges whorf s claim of a lack of temporal terms in the hopi language then pu indeed the following day quite early in the morning at the hour when people pray to the sun around that time then pu he woke up the girl again 42 hopi time 1983 edit most of hopi time is dedicated to the detailed description of the hopi usage of words and constructions related to time malotki describes in detail the usage of a large amount of linguistic material temporal adverbs time units time counting practices such as the hopi calendar the way that days are counted and time is measured the first part of the book describes spatio temporal metaphors in it he shows several deictic adverbs that are used to reference distance in both space and time such as the word ep that means both there and then in the second chapter he describes the way in which the hopi talk about units of time he argues that in some contexts specifically those of the ceremonial cycle the hopi do count days using compound words such as payistala the third day of a ceremony composed of the morphemes paayo three s times and taala day light meaning literally three times day 43 he also shows that the hopi reckon time through the movement of the sun having distinct words for the different degrees of light during the dawn and dusk periods he also notes that the feeling of time passing can be described by saying the sun moves slowly quickly parts 3 4 5 and 6 describe hopi time keeping practices using the sun relative to the horizon using the stars the ceremonial calendar and the use of time keeping devices such as knotted strings or notched sticks with a mark or knot for every day sun hole alignment and shadow observation the eighth chapter describes the temporal particles that whorf defined as temporals and tensors he argues that whorf s descriptions are vague and alienating 44 malotki on tense in hopi edit the concept of hopi tense is covered in the last part of chapter 9 titled miscellaneous and in the conclusion malotki follows gipper in arguing that time is a natural category and that it is naturally experienced in terms of past present and future even though many languages do not necessarily grammaticalize all of these distinctions 45 he analyzes the hopi ni suffix as marking the future tense he argues that since there is no grammatical distinction between past and present hopi has a future nonfuture tense system malotki distinguishes between primary and secondary functions of the ni suffix arguing that its primary function is temporal reference and that its many modal functions such as imperative hortative and desiderative are of secondary importance as it turns out from among the numerous suffixes that the hopi verb can select to mark the grammatical categories of aspect mode and tense one is specifically reserved to refer to time or rather the sequential ordering of events or states this temporal marker is ni whose referential force is futurity its temporal function is primary however in many contexts i ni also takes on a number of secondary atemporal functions which essentially belong to the modal category imperative hortative desiderative etc since no markers exist to point out present or past time hopi like many other languages can be said to be endowed with a future nonfuture tense system 46 malotki does admit that the english and hopi systems of tense are different since the english system distinguishes past from non past whereas hopi distinguishes future from non future 47 further debates edit subsequent descriptions of hopi grammar have maintained malotki s distinction between an unmarked non future tense and a future tense marked with the ni suffix and a habitual aspect marked by the suffix ngwu 17 the review by bernard comrie a well known authority on the linguistic typology of tense and aspect accepts that malotki s work demonstrates that the hopi do have a concept of time and that it is devastating for whorf s strong claims but comrie also notes that malotki s claim that hopi has a tense system based on the opposition of future and non future strikes me as questionable given the wide range of modal uses of the so called future it is at least plausible that this is a modal rather than temporal distinction with the result that hopi would have no tense distinction 5 linguists and psychologists who work in the universalist tradition such as steven pinker and john mcwhorter have seen malotki s study as being the final proof that whorf was an inept linguist and had no significant knowledge or understanding of the hopi language 6 48 49 50 this interpretation has been criticized by relativist scholars as unfounded and based on a lack of knowledge of whorf s work 7 9 in spite of malotki s refutation the myth that the hopi have no concept of time lived on in the popular literature for example in her 1989 novel sexing the cherry jeanette winterson wrote of the hopi their language has no grammar in the way we recognize it and most bizarre of all they have no tenses for past present and future they do not sense time in that way for them time is one 51 and the myth continues to be an integral part of new age thinking that draws on stereotypical depictions of timeless hopi culture 36 52 some linguists working on universals of semantics such as anna wierzbicka and cliff goddard argue that there is a natural semantic metalanguage that has a basic vocabulary of semantic primes including concepts such as time when before after they have argued that malotki s data show that the hopi share these primes with english and all other languages even though it is also clear that the precise way in which these concepts fit into the larger pattern of culture and language practices is different in each language as illustrated by the differences between hopi and english 53 historian of science g e r lloyd held that malotki s investigation made it abundantly clear that the hopi had and have no difficulty whatsoever in drawing distinctions between past present and future 54 some investigators of puebloan astronomical knowledge have taken a compromise position noting that while malotki s study of hopi temporal concepts and timekeeping practices has clearly refuted whorf s assertion that hopi is a timeless language and in doing so has destroyed whorf s strongest example for linguistic relativity he presents no naively positivist assertion of the total independence of language and thought 55 malotki s work has been criticized by relativist scholars for failing to engage with whorf s actual argument john a lucy argues that malotki s critique misses the fact that whorf s point was exactly that the way in which the hopi language grammatically structurates the representation of time leads to a different conception of time than the english one not that they do not have one 56 lucy notes that when whorf makes his strong claim about what it is that hopi lacks he consistently puts the word time in scare quotes and uses the qualifier what we call 57 lucy and others take this as evidence that whorf was implying specifically that what the hopi lacked was a concept that corresponds entirely to that denoted by the english word i e he was making a point of showing that the concepts of time were different malotki himself acknowledges that the conceptualizations are different but because he ignores whorf s use of scare quotes clarification needed takes whorf to be arguing that the hopi have no concept of time at all 58 59 in a book review of hopi time leanne hinton echoes lucy s observation that malotki wrongly characterizes whorf s claim that hopi have no concept of time or cannot express time she further claims that malotki s glosses of hopi often use english terms for time that do not exactly translate time terms e g translating three repetitions in hopi as three times thereby mak ing the error of attributing temporality to any hopi sentence that translates into english with a temporal term 60 further without delineating hopi views of time from the views expressed by english translations what is meant by the word time and what are the criteria for determining whether or not a concept is temporal 61 is never answered by malotki thus begging the question in 1991 penny lee published a comparison of malotki and whorf s analyses of the adverbial word class that whorf had called tensors she argues that whorf s analysis captured aspects of hopi grammar that were not captured by simply describing tensors as falling within the class of temporal adverbs 10 in 2006 anthropologist david dinwoodie published a severe critique of malotki s work questioning his methods and his presentation of data as well as his analysis dinwoodie argues that malotki fails to adequately support his claim of having demonstrated that the hopi have a concept of time as we know it 62 he provides ethnographic examples of how some hopi speakers explain the way they experience the difference between a traditional hopi way of experiencing time as tied closely to cycles of ritual and natural events and the anglo american concept of clock time or school time 4 language time and cognition edit sparked by the hopi debate about time a number of studies about how different languages grammaticalize tense and conceptualize time have been carried out some of these studies in psycholinguistics and cognitive linguistics have found some evidence that there may be significant differences in how speakers of different languages conceptualize time although not necessarily in the way whorf claimed for the hopi specifically it has been shown that some cultural groups conceptualize the flow of time in a direction opposite to what is usual for speakers of english and other indo european languages i e that the future is in front of the speaker and the past behind 63 64 it has also been well established since before the controversy that not all languages have a grammatical category of tense some instead use combinations of adverbs and grammatical aspect to locate events in time 65 66 67 looked at from the perspective of the history of science hopi conceptions of time and space which underlie their well developed observational solar calendar raise the question of how to translate hopi conceptions into terms intelligible to western ears 68 see also edit language and thought linguistic determinism linguistic relativity notes edit 1 2 carroll 1956 1 2 whorf 1956b p 57 1 2 malotki 1983 1 2 3 dinwoodie 2006 1 2 comrie 1984 p 132 1 2 pinker 1994 p 63 1 2 3 leavitt 2011 reines prinze 2009 1 2 lee 1996 1 2 lee 1991 leavitt 2011 pp 180 88 comrie 1984 evans 2004 sinha et al 2011 hopi university of cambridge language centre resources retrieved 2024 04 05 hopi dictionary project 1998 p 854 1 2 3 hopi dictionary project 1998 p 878 hopi dictionary project 1998 p 281 1 2 kalectaca 1978 p 155 1 2 kalectaca 1978 p 157 1 2 3 kalectaca 1978 p 143 carroll 1956 p passim dinwoodie 2006 346 whorf 1956e pp 148 52 whorf 1956a whorf 1956c whorf 1938 whorf 1938 pp 276 278 whorf 1956f p 217 1 2 whorf 1946 lee 1996 p 16 deutscher 2010 pp 141 43 livingston 1963 p 16 greenway 1964 p 9 euler dobyns 1971 p 21 1 2 geertz 1994 black 1959 leavitt 2011 pp 179 180 186 87 gipper 1972 malotki 1979 malotki 1983 p 629 malotki 1983 p vii malotki 1983 p 246 malotki 1983 p 531 malotki 1983 p 625 malotki 1983 p 624 malotki 1983 p 666 pinker 2007 p 188 189 mcwhorter 2009 mcwhorter 2010 winterson 1989 p 140 see for example braden 2009 griscom 1988 pinchbeck 2007 goddard wierzbicka 2002 pp 18 19 lloyd g e r 2004 ancient worlds modern reflections philosophical perspectives on greek and chinese science and culture oxford clarendon press p 81 isbn 0 19 927016 3 mccluskey 1985 p 155 lucy 1996 lucy1992b p 286 leavitt 2011 p 180 levinson 2012 p xii hinton 1988 p 363 hinton 1988 p 364 dinwoodie 2006 p 341 núñez sweetser 2006 dahl 1995 bittner 2005 smith 2008 tonhauser 2011 mccluskey 1987 p 210 references edit bittner maria 2005 future discourse in a tenseless language pdf journal of semantics 12 4 339 388 doi 10 1093 jos ffh029 boroditsky l 2000 metaphoric structuring understanding time through spatial metaphors cognition 75 1 1 28 citeseerx 10 1 1 11 5402 doi 10 1016 s0010 0277 99 00073 6 pmid 10815775 s2cid 11579775 black max 1959 linguistic relativity the views of benjamin lee whorf the philosophical review 68 2 228 238 doi 10 2307 2182168 jstor 2182168 braden gregg 2009 fractal time the secret of 2012 and a new world age hay house isbn 9...