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was replaced by international law theory codified as a set of rules which today still encompass the points commonly debated with some modifications 67 just war theorists combine a moral abhorrence towards war with a readiness to accept that war may sometimes be necessary the criteria of the just war tradition act as an aid in determining whether resorting to arms is morally permissible just war theories aim to distinguish between justifiable and unjustifiable uses of organized armed forces they attempt to conceive of how the use of arms might be restrained made more humane and ultimately directed towards the aim of establishing lasting peace and justice 68 the just war tradition addresses the morality of the use of force in two parts when it is right to resort to armed force the concern of jus ad bellum and what is acceptable in using such force the concern of jus in bello 69 in 1869 the russian military theorist genrikh antonovich leer ru theorized on the advantages and potential benefits of war 70 the soviet leader vladimir lenin defined only three types of just war 71 but picture to yourselves a slave owner who owned 100 slaves warring against a slave owner who owned 200 slaves for a more just distribution of slaves clearly the application of the term defensive war or war for the defense of the fatherland in such a case would be historically false and in practice would be sheer deception of the common people of philistines of ignorant people by the astute slaveowners precisely in this way are the present day imperialist bourgeoisie deceiving the peoples by means of national ideology and the term defense of the fatherland in the present war between slave owners for fortifying and strengthening slavery 72 the anarcho capitalist scholar murray rothbard 1926 1995 stated that a just war exists when a people tries to ward off the threat of coercive domination by another people or to overthrow an already existing domination a war is unjust on the other hand when a people try to impose domination on another people or try to retain an already existing coercive rule over them 73 jonathan riley smith writes the consensus among christians on the use of violence has changed radically since the crusades were fought the just war theory prevailing for most of the last two centuries that violence is an evil that can in certain situations be condoned as the lesser of evils is relatively young although it has inherited some elements the criteria of legitimate authority just cause right intention from the older war theory that first evolved around ad 400 it has rejected two premises that underpinned all medieval just wars including crusades first that violence could be employed on behalf of christ s intentions for mankind and could even be directly authorized by him and second that it was a morally neutral force that drew whatever ethical coloring it had from the intentions of the perpetrators 74 criteria edit the just war theory has two sets of criteria the first establishing jus ad bellum the right to go to war and the second establishing jus in bello right conduct within war 75 jus ad bellum edit main article jus ad bellum the just war theory directs jus ad bellum to norms that aim to require certain circumstances to enable the right to go to war 76 competent authority only duly constituted public authorities may wage war a just war must be initiated by a political authority within a political system that allows distinctions of justice dictatorships e g hitler s regime or deceptive military actions e g the 1969 us bombing of cambodia are typically considered as violations of this criterion the importance of this condition is key plainly we cannot have a genuine process of judging a just war within a system that represses the process of genuine justice a just war must be initiated by a political authority within a political system that allows distinctions of justice 77 probability of success according to this principle there must be good grounds for concluding that aims of the just war are achievable 78 this principle emphasizes that mass violence must not be undertaken if it is unlikely to secure the just cause 79 this criterion is to avoid invasion for invasion s sake and links to the proportionality criteria one cannot invade if there is no chance of actually winning however wars are fought with imperfect knowledge so one must simply be able to make a logical case that one can win there is no way to know this in advance these criteria move the conversation from moral and theoretical grounds to practical grounds 80 essentially this is meant to gather coalition building and win approval of other state actors last resort the principle of last resort stipulates that all non violent options must first be exhausted before the use of force can be justified diplomatic options sanctions and other non military methods must be attempted or validly ruled out before the engagement of hostilities further in regard to the amount of harm proportionally the principle of last resort would support using small intervention forces first and then escalating rather than starting a war with massive force such as carpet bombing or nuclear warfare 81 just cause the reason for going to war needs to be just and cannot therefore be solely for recapturing things taken or punishing people who have done wrong innocent life must be in imminent danger and intervention must be to protect life a contemporary view of just cause was expressed in 1993 when the us catholic conference said force may be used only to correct a grave public evil i e aggression or massive violation of the basic human rights of whole populations jus in bello edit main article international humanitarian law once war has begun just war theory jus in bello also directs how combatants are to act or should act distinction just war conduct is governed by the principle of distinction the acts of war should be directed towards enemy combatants and not towards non combatants caught in circumstances that they did not create the prohibited acts include bombing civilian residential areas that include no legitimate military targets committing acts of terrorism or reprisal against civilians or prisoners of war pows and attacking neutral targets moreover combatants are not permitted to attack enemy combatants who have surrendered or who have been captured or who are injured and not presenting an immediate lethal threat or who are parachuting from disabled aircraft and are not airborne forces or who are shipwrecked proportionality just war conduct is governed by the principle of proportionality combatants must make sure that the harm caused to civilians or civilian property is not excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated by an attack on a legitimate military objective this principle is meant to discern the correct balance between the restriction imposed by a corrective measure and the severity of the nature of the prohibited act military necessity just war conduct is governed by the principle of military necessity an attack or action must be intended to help in the defeat of the enemy it must be an attack on a legitimate military objective and the harm caused to civilians or civilian property must be proportionate and not excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated jus in bello allows for military necessity and does not favor a specific justification in allowing for counter attack recourse 82 this principle is meant to limit excessive and unnecessary death and destruction fair treatment of prisoners of war enemy combatants who surrendered or who are captured no longer pose a threat it is therefore wrong to torture them or otherwise mistreat them no means malum in se combatants may not use weapons or other methods of warfare that are considered evil such as mass rape forcing enemy combatants to fight against their own side or using weapons whose effects cannot be controlled e g nuclear biological weapons jus post bellum edit main article jus post bellum in recent years some theorists such as gary bass louis iasiello and brian orend have proposed a third category within the just war theory jus post bellum is described by some scholars as a new discipline or as a new category of international law currently under construction 83 jus post bellum 84 concerns justice after a war including peace treaties reconstruction environmental remediation war crimes trials and war reparations jus post bellum has been added to deal with the fact that some hostile actions may take place outside a traditional battlefield jus post bellum governs the justice of war termination and peace agreements as well as the prosecution of war criminals and publicly labelled terrorists the idea has largely been used to help decide what to do with prisoners taken during battle it is through government labeling and public opinion that people use jus post bellum to justify the pursuit of individuals labeled as terrorists for the safety of the government s state in a modern context the actual fault lies with the aggressor and by being the aggressor they forfeit their rights to honorable treatment by their actions that theory is used to justify the actions taken by anyone fighting in a war to treat prisoners outside the bounds of war 85 86 traditionalists and revisionists edit there are two altering views related to the just war theory that scholars align with which are traditionalists and revisionists the debates between these different viewpoints rest on the moral responsibilities of actors in jus in bello 87 traditionalists edit in the just war theory as it pertains to jus in bello traditionalist scholars view that the two principles jus ad bellum and jus in bello are distinct in which actors in war are morally responsible the traditional view places accountability on leaders who start the war while soldiers are accountable for actions breaking jus in bello 88 revisionists edit revisionist scholars view that moral responsibility in conduct of war is placed on individual soldiers who participate in war even if they follow the rules associated with jus in bello soldiers that participate in unjust wars are morally responsible the revisionist view is based on an individual level rather than on a collective whole 89 87 88 additionally the distinctive methodologies associated with the use of nuclear weapons to wage mass war in the modern era have also led some nonreductive revisionists to question the relevance the just war theory itself 90 such particular criticisms are more limited in scope however than the generalized objections which have been raised by both realists and pacifists 91 92 93 see also edit appeasement christian pacifism cost benefit analysis democratic peace theory deterrence theory peace and conflict studies right of conquest moral equality of combatants supreme emergency peace discourse in the israeli palestinian conflict 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