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gúháyᴀ, káwi̥tsi̥, gáwɪc̠ɪ, seed, 114, kánàmì, gánami, beans, 112, cúːpí, dʸúˑbí, badger, 110, cɨ́ːʂḁ, dʸɨ́ˑṣᴀ, elk, 108, cèitsi̥, dʸèic̠ɪ, piñon, 105, cáːwí, dʸáˑwí, gourd, 104, cánˀé, dʸán̍é, deer, 101, cáːcu̥, dʸáˑdʸᴜ, bobcat, tíjḁ, díyᴀ, tíːskʰámí, díˑskámí, husk, tâːnì, dâˑni, squash, támájá, dámáyá, tapínu̥skḁ, dabínᴜsk̠ᴀ, horned, tʃʼɨ́ːɾíka, č̇ɨ́ˑríga, hawk, tʃʼájâːnì, č̇áyâˑni, medicine, man, tʃícá, c̆ídʸá, kiva, tsʼíːjˀá, c̍íˑy̍á, tsʼíːkà, c̍íˑga, locust, tsʰúski̥, cúsk̠ɪ, fox, tsʰinḁ, cinᴀ, turkey, pêːɾàkḁ, bêˑrak̠ᴀ, ʔiːʂʼá, ʔiˑṣ̍á, porcupine, ʔiːpáni̥, ʔiˑbánɪ, cholla, cactus, ʔíʔìːcàwà, ʔíʔìˑdʸawa, centipede, ʔáʂáni̥, ʔáṣánɪ, wheat, gloss, selected, plants, animals, toponyms, transcription, refer, uncertainties, regarding, aspiration, 312, capitalized, reconstruction, sunday, monday, tuesday, wednesday, thursday, friday, saturday, lunes, martes, miércoles, jueves, viernes, sábado, tamîikụ, rûunishị, mâatịsị, mérikụsị, sruwêewesị, yêenịsị, sâawaru, days, week, mass, jesus, christ, christmas, lent, misa, jesús, cristo, noche, buena, cuaresma, míisa, háasus, kuríistị, nachạwêena, guréesima, horse, pig, pen, bull, cow, caballo, carnero, cochino, toro, vaca, kawâayu, kanêeru, kujíinu, kurá, dûura, wáakạshị, animal, husbandry, cheese, rice, coffee, lard, queso, arroz, café, mantequilla, manteca, géesu, arûusị, kawé, kurántụ, mantạgîiyụ, mandêegạ, food, king, black, house, money, rey, mulato, americano, comunidad, dinero, gumbanêerụ, rái, murâatụ, merigâanạ, kumanirá, ninêeru, bed, spoon, mattress, window, glass, bucket, camarita, cuchara, colchón, mesa, ventana, cubeta, kamárîita, kuchâaru, kujûuna, méesa, mendâan, kuwêeta, household, items, semantic, domain, arriving, brought, introduced, spaniards, into, persists, borrowed, material, kʼádzawa, 100, dyúwa, máiyúkʼuwa, máiyúkʼa, máyúkʼu, kukʼúmishuwa, mʼáidyanawa, mʼáidyana, mʼáiʼdyàana, shchʼísawa, shchʼísa, shʼísa, táamʼawa, táamʼa, táam, dyáanawa, chamiya, chami, chameʼée, dyúuwʼée, íisrkʼé, írskʼá, ísrkʼé, numeral, tens, kʼátsʰɪ, ten, ollowed, tsɪtʂa, multiplicative, coined, roots, ones, compounding, strategy, building, derivation, day, naháayashi, yesterday, súwa, nacháma, once, formerly, háma, tonight, kúsra, ago, tsikʼínuma, indicate, speaking, rained, káajatú, keeps, kájásɨ, káajáni, rains, kájáni, rain, ajanu, signalled, dzì, kudrù, srgù, she, srù, dyù, srà, mood, sleeping, dzíibái, sweats, kashdyuwàanʼi, kɨdrâidyá, kɨdr, srúuchʼáwʼa, srkuhima, sudyàatra, intransive, adjectives, express, idea, selfish, saying, along, lines, such, characterized, beyond, control, belong, sets, selfishes, hima, dyá, bái, tyishu, dyúmidruwi, forget, afraid, sleep, less, dyàatra, chʼáwʼa, ushchʼi, srbiitsa, shdyuwàanʼi, sweat, whistle, leave, diarrhea, thief, degrees, involvement, similarly, breathe, dive, involving, lesser, degree, types, participant, initiates, breathing, growing, diving, kick, buy

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s of syllables i e the syllable onset when the alveolo palatal consonant ʃ occurs as c 1 it combines with alveolar and palatal c 2 whereas the retroflex alveolar ʂ precedes bilabial and velar c 2 s which suggest a complementary distribution consonant clusters may occur both word initially and word medially 8 c 1 c 2 bilabial alveolar velar postalveolar p pʰ pʼ t tʰ tʼ k kʰ kʼ tʃ tʃʰ tʃʼ ʃ ʃtáʊ̯rákʊ̥ shd áurákụ frog toad ʃtʰéràʃtʼíká sht érashtʼígá cricket ʃtʼìcɑ̀ːtʰɪ̥ʃɪ̥ shtʼ idyàatịshị plot of land ʃtʃɨ shj v upward ʃtʃʰúmúná shch úmúmá wasp ʃtʃʼísḁ shchʼ ísạ six ʂ ʂpúːná srb úuná water jug ʂpʰɑ̀ːtʼi srp àat i mockingbird ʂpʼeruru srpʼ eruru it s full ʂkɑ́ʂkɑ́ʊ̯kʼa srg ásrgáukʼa quail ʂkʰɨ́tútsʰɪ̥ srk v́dútsị mound hill ʂkʼàpɪ́hɪ́ srkʼ abíhí female in law orthography edit traditional keresan beliefs postulate that keres is a sacred language that must exist only in its spoken form 11 the language s religious connotation and years of persecution of pueblo religion by european colonizers may also explain why no unified orthographic convention exists for keresan however a practical spelling system has been developed for laguna kʼawaika 7 and more recently for acoma áakʼu keres 12 both of which are remarkably consistent in the keres spelling system each symbol represents a single phoneme the letters c q z f and sometimes also v are not used digraphs represent both palatal consonants written using a sequence of c and y and retroflex consonants which are represented using a sequence of c and the letter r these graphemes used for writing western keres are shown between below consonant symbols edit labial alveolar palatal retroflex velar glottal nasal voiced m n ny glottalized mʼ nʼ nyʼ plosive voiceless b d dy g ʼ aspirated p t ty k ejective pʼ tʼ tyʼ kʼ affricate voiceless dz j dr aspirated ts ch tr ejective tsʼ chʼ trʼ fricative voiceless s sh sr h ejective sʼ shʼ srʼ approximant voiced w r y glottalized wʼ rʼ yʼ signage at acoma pueblo edit signs at acoma pueblo sometimes use special diacritics for ejective consonants that differ from the symbols above as shown in the table signage at acoma pueblo comparison between general orthography and the orthography used at acoma general pʼ tʼ kʼ sʼ tsʼ mʼ wʼ yʼ nʼ shʼ srʼ tyʼ acoma signage ṕ t́ ḱ ś tś ḿ ẃ ý vowel symbols edit vowel sounds are represented straightforwardly in the existing spellings for keresan each vowel sound is written using a unique letter or digraph for long vowels and diphthongs however there are two competing representations for the vowel ɨ some versions simply use the ipa ɨ whereas others use the letter v the sound v as in veal does not occur in keresan voiceless vowels have also been represented in two ways either underlined or with a dot below see table long vowels short vowels voiceless vowels phoneme grapheme phoneme grapheme phoneme grapheme iː ii i i ɪ̥ i̱ or ị eː ee e e e̥ e̱ or ẹ ɨː ɨɨ or vv ɨ ɨ or v ɨ̥ ɨ̱ or ṿ ɑː aa ɑ a ḁ a̱ or ạ oː oo o o o̥ o̱ or ọ uː uu u u ʊ̥ u̱ or ụ diacritics for tone edit tone may or may not be represented in the orthography of keresan when represented four diacritics may be used above the vowel unlike the system used for navajo diacritics for tone are not repeated in long vowels high tone low tone rising tone falling tone long vowel áa úu àa ùu or unmarked ǎa ǔu or aá uú âa ûu or aà uù short vowel á ú à ù or unmarked keres orthography and alphabetical order edit although keresan is not normally written there exists one dictionary of the language in which words are listed in any given order in this dictionary of western keres digraphs count as single letters although ejective consonants are not listed separately occurring after their non ejective counterparts the symbol for the glottal stop ʼ for long vowels e g aa ee ii etc are not treated as separate letters alphabetical order in the acoma keres audio dictionary a a b b ch ch chʼ chʼ d d dr dr dy dy dz dz e e g g h h i i ɨ ɨ j j k k kʼ kʼ m m mʼ mʼ n n nʼ nʼ ny ny nyʼ nyʼ o o p p pʼ pʼ r r rʼ rʼ s s sʼ sʼ sh sh shʼ shʼ sr sr srʼ srʼ t tʼ tr tr trʼ trʼ ts ts tsʼ tsʼ ty ty tyʼ tyʼ u u w w v v wʼ wʼ y y yʼ yʼ letters f q x z are not used to write keres whereas the letters ɨ o v are only used in some dialects sample texts edit orthography marking tone edit woodpecker and coyote 8 ái dítʼîishu srbígà kʼánâaya dyáʼâʼu shʼée srbígà ái dyěitsị ái náyáa shdyɨ dyáʼa ɑ́ì títʼîːʃù ʂpíkɑ̀ kʼɑ́nɑ̂ːjɑ̀ cɑ́ʔɑ̂ʔù ʃʼéː ʂpíkɑ̀ ɑ́ì cěǐtsʰi̥ ɑ́ì nɑ́jɑ́ː ʃcɨ̀ cɑ́ʔɑ̀ orthography without tone marking edit boas text 7 baanaʼa egu kauʼseeʼe atsi sʼaama ee srayutse morphosyntax edit keresan is a split ergative language in which verbs denoting states i e stative verbs behave differently from those indexing actions especially in terms of the person affixes they take this system of argument marking is based on a split intransitive pattern in which subjects are marked differently if they are perceived as actors than from when they are perceived as undergoers of the action being described the morphology of keresan is mostly prefixing although suffixes and reduplication also occur 8 keresan distinguishes nouns verbs numerals and particles as word classes nouns in keresan do not normally distinguish case or number but they can be inflected for possession with distinct constructions for alienable and inalienable possession other than possession keresan nouns show no comprehensive noun classes word order edit keresan is a verb final language though word order is rather flexible 8 7 laguna keres 7 john j john subject bill b bill object gukacha g ø ukacha 3s 3s see verb john bill gukacha j b g ø ukacha john bill 3s 3s see subject object verb john saw bill negation edit negation is doubly marked in keresan in addition to the adverb dzaadi verbs index negation through a suffix e g u gukacha s he saw her him dzaadi gukacha u s he didn t see her him verbal morphology edit the verb is a central grammatical category in keres conveying the most information about events in communicative acts 7 8 9 through its morphemes keresan verbs code not only person and number of the initiator of the action e g tammy drink s decaf as is common in indo european languages but also how the initiator is implicated in the action for instance the three verbs that describe tammy s actions in tammy kicked the ball vs tammy jumped vs tammy sneezed require different levels of effort from tammy that is when kicking vs jumping vs sneezing additionally the person and number of the undergoer of the action are all coded on the verb e g the word gukacha means s he sees her him a full sentence in english the ways the speaker assesses the action i e evidentiality as in i think tammy arrived from class vs tammy arrived from class finally the internal temporal structure of the action i e aspect as in tammy was sneez ing in class vs tammy sneez ed in class is also coded in keresan verbs according to maring 1967 the keresan verb is organized around the following grammatical categories pp 39 40 9 subject object relations subject of intransitive verbs marked by a prefix that distinguishes 3 4 persons in the singular see below subject of transitive verbs marked by a prefix that distinguishes 3 4 persons in the singular see below object of transitive verbs marked by a prefix that combines with the subject prefix or by a suffix number relations singular usually marked by a prefix dual can be marked by a prefix partial reduplication or by suffixes plural can be marked by a prefix partial reduplication by suffixes or by suppletive stem forms i e singular and plural forms are not related etymologically temporal relations future is marked on the verb by a series of prefixes that also encode number modality relations indicative dubitative hortative negative hortative negative future negative voice relations active passive reflexive reciprocal aspect imperfective inceptive repetitive continuative habitual inchoative perfective the verbal prefix edit in keres the verbal prefix carries information from five different grammatical categories argument role modality polarity 7 person and number that is a single keresan verb prefix codes who initiated the action and how implicated that entity is the subject case who underwent the effects of the action the direct object the speaker s assessment of the action the modality 13 and whether it occurred or not polarity on the other hand information about when the action took place i e tense is expressed elsewhere in a clause mostly by adverbs 8 number edit keresan verbs distinguish three numbers singular dual two entities and plural more than two entities and four persons first the speaker second the hearer third a known definite or salient entity being talked about and fourth a non salient unknown or indefinite entity being talked about also known as obviative persons the plural and dual forms are often marked by reduplication of part of the stem gu kacha s he saw it vs guʼu kacha the two of them saw it argument role edit languages encode two main types of actions those in which the main participant initiates an action that produces change in an object e g kick a ball buy a gift cook a dish read a book and those in which the action produces no perceived change in the world or that have no object sneezing breathing growing diving etc 14 actions that take an object are encoded by transitive verbs whereas those that take no object are expressed via intransitive verbs intransitive verbs edit in indo european languages like english all intransitive verbs behave similarly they sneeze breathe dive think etc in keresan actions that take no object are conceptualized in two distinct ways depending on how the initiator of the action is implicated more active like intransitive verbs e g to sneeze are coded through one set of morphemes whereas actions conceptualized as involving the initiator at a lesser degree e g to believe are coded using a separate set of prefixes degrees of involvement of the initiator in keres 7 actions intransitive verb type more to write dyàatra to steal as a thief chʼáwʼa to have diarrhea ushchʼi to leave mi to whistle srbiitsa to sweat shdyuwàanʼi active less to believe hima to be born dyá to sleep bái to be afraid tyishu to forget dyúmidruwi inactive ideas expressed in indo european languages with adjectives are most often encoded by verbs in keresan that is in keresan one express the idea in the sentence he is selfish by saying something along the lines of he selfishes in such actions the entity that is characterized by them is not implicated in the action directly i e it s beyond their control and thus belong in the inactive intransitive category the different sets of prefixes are shown below intransitive prefixes by verb type active intransive inactive intransitive prefix example prefix example first s i sudyàatra i write srk srkuhima i believe second sr srúuchʼáwʼa you steal kɨdr kɨdrâidyá you were born third k kashdyuwàanʼi s he sweats dz dzíibái he is sleeping transitive verbs edit transitive verb indicative mood ukạchạ to see direct object singular subject first me second you third her him fourth first i srà ukạchạ sì ukạchạ i see you i see her him second you dyù ukạchạ srù ukạchạ you see me you see her him third she he srgù ukạchạ kudrù ukạchạ g ukạchạ gù ukạchạ s he sees me s he sees you s he sees her him s he sees something fourth one dzì ukạchạ one sees it aspect edit aspect in keresan is signalled by suffixes ajanu to rain kájáni it rains káajáni it is raining kájásɨ it keeps raining káajatú it rained time tense adverbials edit the category of tense is expressed in keresan via adverbs that indicate when the action about which one is speaking took place time adverbials in acoma keres 9 past future tsikʼínuma long ago kúsra tonight háma once formerly nacháma tomorrow súwa yesterday naháayashi day after tomorrow lexicon edit new words are coined through a number of roots that are combined to pre existing ones compounding is a common strategy for word building although derivation also occurs numerals edit the keresan numeral system is a base 10 system numerals 11 19 as well as those between the multiple of tens are formed by adding the word kʼátsi kʼátsʰɪ ten f ollowed by the word dzidra tsɪtʂa more numerals 20 and above are formed by adding a multiplicative adverb wa or ya to the base number and the word kʼátsi 7 western keres 1 ísrkʼé 11 kʼátsi írskʼá dzidra 21 dyúya kʼátsi íisrkʼé dzidra 2 dyúuwʼée 12 kʼátsi dyú dzidra 22 dyúya kʼátsi dyú dzidra 3 chameʼée 13 kʼátsi chami dzidra 30 chamiya kʼátsi 4 dyáana 14 kʼátsi dyáana dzidra 40 dyáanawa kʼátsi 5 táam a 15 kʼátsi táamʼa dzidra 50 táamʼawa kʼátsi 6 shʼísa 16 kʼátsi shchʼísa dzidra 60 shchʼísawa kʼátsi 7 mʼáiʼdyàana 17 kʼátsi mʼáidyana dzidra 70 mʼáidyanawa kʼátsi 8 kukʼúmishu 18 kʼátsi kukʼúmishu dzidra 80 kukʼúmishuwa kʼátsi 9 máyúkʼu 19 kʼátsi máiyúkʼa dzidra 90 máiyúkʼuwa kʼátsi 10 kʼátsi 20 dyúwa kʼátsi 100 kʼádzawa kʼátsi loanwords from spanish edit european colonizers arriving in the southwest us brought with them material culture and concepts that were unknown to the peoples living in the area words for the new ideas introduced by spaniards were often borrowed into keres directly from early modern spanish and a large number of these persists in modern keresan 10 semantic domain modern western keres modern spanish english translation household items kamárîita kuchâaru kujûuna méesa mendâan kuwêeta camarita cuchara colchón mesa ventana cubeta mexico bed spoon mattress table window glass bucket social structure gumbanêerụ rái murâatụ merigâanạ kumanirá ninêeru compañero rey mulato americano a comunidad dinero workmate king black person white person community house money food géesu arûusị kawé kurántụ mantạgîiyụ mandêegạ queso arroz café cilantro mantequilla manteca cheese rice coffee cilantro butter lard butter animal husbandry kawâayu kanêeru kujíinu kurá dûura wáakạshị caballo carnero cochino corral toro vaca horse sheep pig pen corral bull cow religious concepts míisa háasus kuríistị nachạwêena guréesima misa jesús cristo noche buena cuaresma mass jesus christ christmas lent days of the week tamîikụ rûunishị mâatịsị mérikụsị sruwêewesị yêenịsị sâawaru domingo lunes martes miércoles jueves viernes sábado sunday monday tuesday wednesday thursday friday saturday proto language edit proto keresan reconstruction of keresan languages selected proto keresan reconstructions of plants animals and toponyms by miller and davis 1963 15 are given below the ipa transcription is based on the authors description underlined consonants in reconstructions refer to uncertainties by the authors regarding aspiration p 312 these are shown as capitalized consonants in the ipa no gloss proto keresan ipa 10 wheat ʔáṣánɪ ʔáʂáni̥ 17 centipede ʔíʔìˑdʸawa ʔíʔìːcàwà 19 cholla cactus ʔiˑbánɪ ʔiːpáni̥ 27 porcupine ʔiˑṣ̍á ʔiːʂʼá 45 toad bêˑrak̠ᴀ pêːɾàkḁ 63 turkey cinᴀ tsʰinḁ 64 fox cúsk̠ɪ tsʰúski̥ 71 locust c̍íˑga tsʼíːkà 72 zia pueblo c̍íˑy̍á tsʼíːjˀá 78 kiva c̆ídʸá tʃ...