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a strong fiscal system which heightened the power of the king to raise armies that overawed the local nobility 14 page needed in paris especially there emerged strong traditions in literature art and music the prevailing style was classical 15 page needed 16 page needed the ordinance of villers cotterêts was signed into law by francis i in 1539 largely the work of chancellor guillaume poyet it dealt with a number of government judicial and ecclesiastical matters articles 110 and 111 the most famous called for the use of the french language in all legal acts notarised contracts and official legislation citation needed italian wars edit main article italian wars after the hundred years war charles viii of france signed three additional treaties with henry vii of england emperor maximilian i and ferdinand ii of aragon respectively at étaples 1492 senlis 1493 and barcelona 1493 these three treaties cleared the way for france to undertake the long italian wars 1494 1559 which marked the beginning of early modern france french efforts to gain dominance resulted only in the increased power of the house of habsburg citation needed wars of religion edit main article french wars of religion barely were the italian wars over when france was plunged into a domestic crisis with far reaching consequences despite the conclusion of a concordat between france and the papacy 1516 granting the crown unrivalled power in senior ecclesiastical appointments france was deeply affected by the protestant reformation s attempt to break the hegemony of catholic europe a growing urban based protestant minority later dubbed huguenots faced ever harsher repression under the rule of francis i s son king henry ii after henry ii s death in a joust the country was ruled by his widow catherine de medici and her sons francis ii charles ix and henry iii renewed catholic reaction headed by the powerful dukes of guise culminated in a massacre of huguenots 1572 starting the first of the french wars of religion during which english german and spanish forces intervened on the side of rival protestant and catholic forces opposed to absolute monarchy the huguenot monarchomachs theorized during this time the right of rebellion and the legitimacy of tyrannicide 17 page needed the wars of religion culminated in the war of the three henrys in which henry iii assassinated henry de guise leader of the spanish backed catholic league and the king was murdered in return after the assassination of both henry of guise 1588 and henry iii 1589 the conflict was ended by the accession of the protestant king of navarre as henry iv first king of the bourbon dynasty and his subsequent abandonment of protestantism expedient of 1592 effective in 1593 his acceptance by most of the catholic establishment 1594 and by the pope 1595 and his issue of the toleration decree known as the edict of nantes 1598 which guaranteed freedom of private worship and civil equality 18 page needed early modern period edit main article france in the early modern period henry iv left by frans pourbus the younger 1610 louis xiii right by philippe de champaigne 1647 colonial france edit main article new france france s pacification under henry iv laid much of the ground for the beginnings of france s rise to european hegemony france was expansive during all but the end of the seventeenth century the french began trading in india and madagascar founded quebec and penetrated the north american great lakes and mississippi established plantation economies in the west indies and extended their trade contacts in the levant and enlarged their merchant marine citation needed thirty years war edit main article thirty years war henry iv s son louis xiii and his minister 1624 1642 cardinal richelieu elaborated a policy against spain and the holy roman empire during the thirty years war 1618 1648 which had broken out in germany after the death of both king and cardinal the peace of westphalia 1648 secured universal acceptance of germany s political and religious fragmentation but the regency of anne of austria and her minister cardinal mazarin experienced a civil uprising known as the fronde 1648 1653 which expanded into a franco spanish war 1635 1659 the treaty of the pyrenees 1659 formalised france s seizure 1642 of the spanish territory of roussillon after the crushing of the ephemeral catalan republic and ushered a short period of peace 19 page needed administrative structures edit main article ancien régime the ancien régime a french term rendered in english as old rule or simply former regime refers primarily to the aristocratic social and political system of early modern france under the late valois and bourbon dynasties the administrative and social structures of the ancien régime were the result of years of state building legislative acts like the ordinance of villers cotterêts internal conflicts and civil wars but they remained a confusing patchwork of local privilege and historic differences until the french revolution brought about a radical suppression of administrative incoherence citation needed louis xiv the sun king edit main article louis xiv louis xiv a 1701 portrait by hyacinthe rigaud for most of the reign of louis xiv 1643 1715 the sun king france was the dominant power in europe aided by the diplomacy of cardinal richelieu s successor as the king s chief minister 1642 61 cardinal jules mazarin 1602 1661 cardinal mazarin oversaw the creation of a french royal navy that rivalled england s expanding it from 25 ships to almost 200 the size of the french royal army was also considerably increased renewed wars the war of devolution 1667 1668 and the franco dutch war 1672 1678 brought further territorial gains artois and western flanders and the free county of burgundy previously left to the empire in 1482 but at the cost of the increasingly concerted opposition of rival royal powers and a legacy of an increasingly enormous national debt an adherent of the theory of the divine right of kings which advocates the divine origin of temporal power and any lack of earthly restraint of monarchical rule louis xiv continued his predecessors work of creating a centralized state governed from the capital of paris he sought to eliminate the remnants of feudalism still persisting in parts of france and by compelling the noble elite to regularly inhabit his lavish palace of versailles built on the outskirts of paris succeeded in pacifying the aristocracy many members of which had participated in the earlier fronde rebellion during louis minority by these means he consolidated a system of absolute monarchy in france that endured 150 years until the french revolution 20 page needed mccabe says critics used fiction to portray the degraded turkish court using the harem the sultan court oriental despotism luxury gems and spices carpets and silk cushions as an unfavorable analogy to the corruption of the french royal court 21 the king sought to impose total religious uniformity on the country repealing the edict of nantes in 1685 it is estimated that anywhere between 150 000 and 300 000 protestants fled france during the wave of persecution that followed the repeal 22 following huguenots beginning a hundred and fifty years earlier until the end of the 18th century costing the country a great many intellectuals artisans and other valuable people persecution extended to unorthodox roman catholics like the jansenists a group that denied free will and had already been condemned by the popes in this he garnered the friendship of the papacy which had previously been hostile to france because of its policy of putting all church property in the country under the jurisdiction of the state rather than that of rome 23 page needed in november 1700 king charles ii of spain died ending the habsburg line in that country louis had long planned for this moment but these plans were thrown into disarray by the will of king charles which left the entire spanish empire to louis s grandson philip duke of anjou 1683 1746 essentially spain was to become a perpetual ally and even obedient satellite of france ruled by a king who would carry out orders from versailles realizing how this would upset the balance of power the other european rulers were outraged however most of the alternatives were equally undesirable for example putting another habsburg on the throne would end up recreating the grand multi national empire of charles v of the holy roman empire spain and the spanish territories in italy which would also grossly upset the power balance however the rest of europe would not stand for his ambitions in spain and so the long war of the spanish succession began 1701 1714 a mere three years after the war of the grand alliance 1688 1697 a k a war of the league of augsburg had just concluded 24 page needed dissent and revolution edit main article french revolution the provinces of the kingdom of france in 1789 the reign 1715 1774 of louis xv saw an initial return to peace and prosperity under the regency 1715 1723 of philippe ii duke of orléans whose policies were largely continued 1726 1743 by cardinal fleury prime minister in all but name the exhaustion of europe after two major wars resulted in a long period of peace only interrupted by minor conflicts like the war of the polish succession from 1733 to 1735 large scale warfare resumed with the war of the austrian succession 1740 1748 but alliance with the traditional habsburg enemy the diplomatic revolution of 1756 against the rising power of britain and prussia led to costly failure in the seven years war 1756 63 and the loss of france s north american colonies 25 page needed louis xv left by louis michel van loo 1763 louis xvi right by antoine françois callet 1775 on the whole the 18th century saw growing discontent with the monarchy and the established order louis xv was a highly unpopular king for his sexual excesses overall weakness and for losing new france to the british the writings of the philosophes such as voltaire were a clear sign of discontent but the king chose to ignore them he died of smallpox in 1774 and the french people shed few tears at his death while france had not yet experienced the industrial revolution that was beginning in britain the rising middle class of the cities felt increasingly frustrated with a system and rulers that seemed silly frivolous aloof and antiquated even if true feudalism no longer existed in france citation needed upon louis xv s death his grandson louis xvi became king initially popular he too came to be widely detested by the 1780s he was married to an austrian archduchess marie antoinette french intervention in the american war of independence was also very expensive 26 page needed with the country deeply in debt louis xvi permitted the radical reforms of turgot and malesherbes but noble disaffection led to turgot s dismissal and malesherbes resignation in 1776 they were replaced by jacques necker necker had resigned in 1781 to be replaced by calonne and brienne before being restored in 1788 a harsh winter that year led to widespread food shortages and by then france was a powder keg ready to explode 27 page needed on the eve of the french revolution of july 1789 france was in a profound institutional and financial crisis but the ideas of the enlightenment had begun to permeate the educated classes of society 24 page needed limited monarchy edit main article kingdom of france 1791 92 on september 3 1791 the absolute monarchy which had governed france for 948 years was forced to limit its power and become a provisional constitutional monarchy however this too would not last very long and on september 21 1792 the french monarchy was effectively abolished by the proclamation of the french first republic the role of the king in france was finally ended with the execution of louis xvi by guillotine on monday january 21 1793 followed by the reign of terror mass executions and the provisional directory form of republican government and the eventual beginnings of twenty five years of reform upheaval dictatorship wars and renewal with the various napoleonic wars citation needed restoration edit main article bourbon restoration in france the two kings of the restoration louis xviii left by françois gérard 1820s charles x right by françois gérard 1825 following the french revolution 1789 99 and the first french empire under napoleon 1804 1814 the monarchy was restored when a coalition of european powers restored by arms the monarchy to the house of bourbon in 1814 however the deposed emperor napoleon i returned triumphantly to paris from his exile in elba and ruled france for a short period known as the hundred days citation needed when a seventh european coalition again deposed napoleon after the battle of waterloo in 1815 the bourbon monarchy was once again restored the count of provence brother of louis xvi who was guillotined in 1793 was crowned as louis xviii nicknamed the desired louis xviii tried to conciliate the legacies of the revolution and the ancien régime by permitting the formation of a parliament and a constitutional charter usually known as the charte octroyée granted charter his reign was characterized by disagreements between the doctrinaires liberal thinkers who supported the charter and the rising bourgeoisie and the ultra royalists aristocrats and clergymen who totally refused the revolution s heritage peace was maintained by statesmen like talleyrand and the duke of richelieu as well as the king s moderation and prudent intervention 28 full citation needed in 1823 the trienio liberal revolt in spain led to a french intervention on the royalists side which permitted king ferdinand vii of spain to abolish the constitution of 1812 however the work of louis xviii was frustrated when after his death on 16 september 1824 his brother the count of artois became king under the name of charles x charles x was a strong reactionary who supported the ultra royalists and the catholic church under his reign the censorship of newspapers was reinforced the anti sacrilege act passed and compensations to émigrés were increased however the reign also witnessed the french intervention in the greek revolution in favour of the greek rebels and the first phase of the conquest of algeria citation needed the absolutist tendencies of the king were disliked by the doctrinaire majority in the chamber of deputies that on 18 march 1830 sent an address to the king upholding the rights of the chamber and in effect supporting a transition to a full parliamentary system charles x received this address as a veiled threat and in 25 july of the same year he issued the st cloud ordinances in an attempt to reduce parliament s powers and re establish absolute rule 29 full citation needed the opposition reacted with riots in parliament and barricades in paris that resulted in the july revolution 30 the king abdicated as did his son the dauphin louis antoine in favo...