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sical standing outside of ocular abnormalities 35 a 2018 study revealed that the kiwi s closest relatives the extinct elephant birds also shared this trait despite their great size 36 unlike virtually every other palaeognath which are generally small brained by bird standards kiwi have proportionally large encephalisation quotients hemisphere proportions are even similar to those of parrots and songbirds though there is no evidence of similarly complex behaviour 37 the call of a male north island brown kiwi apteryx mantelli behaviour and ecology before the arrival of humans in the 13th century or earlier new zealand s only endemic mammals were three species of bat and the ecological niches that in other parts of the world were filled by creatures as diverse as horses wolves and mice were taken up by birds and to a lesser extent reptiles insects and gastropods 38 the kiwi s mostly nocturnal habits may be a result of habitat intrusion by predators including humans in areas of new zealand where introduced predators have been removed such as sanctuaries kiwi are often seen in daylight they prefer subtropical and temperate podocarp and beech forests but they are being forced to adapt to different habitat such as sub alpine scrub tussock grassland and the mountains 34 kiwi have a highly developed sense of smell unusual in a bird and are the only birds with nostrils at the end of their long beaks kiwi eat small invertebrates seeds grubs and many varieties of worms they also may eat fruit small crayfish eels and amphibians because their nostrils are located at the end of their long beaks kiwi can locate insects and worms underground using their keen sense of smell without actually seeing or feeling them 34 this sense of smell is due to a highly developed olfactory chamber and surrounding regions it is a common belief that the kiwi relies solely on its sense of smell to catch prey but this has not been scientifically observed lab experiments have suggested that a australis can rely on olfaction alone but is not consistent under natural conditions instead the kiwi may rely on auditory and or vibrotactile cues 39 relative size of the egg mating and breeding once bonded a male and female kiwi tend to live their entire lives as a monogamous couple during the mating season june to march the pair call to each other at night and meet in the nesting burrow every three days these relationships may last for up to 20 years 40 they are unusual among other birds in that along with some raptors they have a functioning pair of ovaries in most birds and in platypuses the right ovary never matures so that only the left is functional 34 41 42 usually only one egg is laid per season the kiwi lays one of the largest eggs in proportion to its size of any bird in the world 43 d so even though the kiwi is about the size of a domestic chicken it is able to lay eggs that are about six times the size of a chicken s egg 46 kiwi eggs can weigh up to one quarter the weight of the female helped by their inability to fly that could limit the extent by its body weight brown kiwi females carry and lay a single egg that may weigh as much as 450 g 16 oz 34 the eggs are smooth in texture and are ivory or greenish white 47 the male incubates the egg except for the great spotted kiwi a haastii in which both parents are involved the incubation period is 63 92 days 34 producing the huge egg places significant physiological stress on the female for the thirty days it takes to grow the fully developed egg the female must eat three times her normal amount of food two to three days before the egg is laid there is little space left inside the female for her stomach and she is forced to fast 48 it was believed that the large eggs were a trait of much larger moa like ancestors and that kiwi retained large eggs as an evolutionarily neutral trait as they became smaller however research in the early 2010s suggested that kiwi were descended from smaller flighted birds that flew to new zealand and madagascar where they gave rise to kiwi and elephant birds the large egg is instead thought to be an adaptation for precocity enabling kiwi chicks to hatch mobile and with yolk to sustain them for two and half weeks the large eggs would be safe in new zealand s historical absence of egg eating ground predators while the mobile chicks would be able to evade chick eating flying predators 49 pests lice in the genus apterygon 50 51 52 and in the subgenus rallicola aptericola 53 54 are exclusively ectoparasites of kiwi species 55 status and conservation traffic sign in new zealand cautioning drivers of nearby kiwi nationwide studies show that only around 5 10 of kiwi chicks survive to adulthood without management 56 57 as of 2018 update over 70 of kiwi populations are unmanaged 58 however in areas under active pest management survival rates for north island brown kiwi can be far higher for example prior to a joint 1080 poison operation undertaken by doc and the animal health board in tongariro forest in 2006 32 kiwi chicks were radio tagged efforts to protect kiwi have had some success and in 2017 two species were downlisted from endangered to vulnerable by the iucn 59 in 2018 the department of conservation released its current kiwi conservation plan 58 sanctuaries in 2000 the department of conservation set up five kiwi sanctuaries focused on developing methods to protect kiwi and to increase their numbers 60 there are three kiwi sanctuaries in the north island whangarei kiwi sanctuary for northland brown kiwi 61 moehau kiwi sanctuary on the coromandel peninsula coromandel brown kiwi 62 63 tongariro kiwi sanctuary near taupō western brown kiwi 64 65 and two in the south island okarito kiwi sanctuary okarito kiwi 66 haast kiwi sanctuary haast tokoeka 67 68 a number of other mainland conservation islands and fenced sanctuaries have significant populations of kiwi including zealandia fenced sanctuary in wellington little spotted kiwi 69 sanctuary mountain maungatautari in waikato brown kiwi 70 71 72 bushy park forest reserve near kai iwi whanganui brown kiwi 73 otanewainuku forest in the bay of plenty region brown kiwi 62 74 hurunui mainland island south branch hurunui river north canterbury great spotted kiwi brook waimārama sanctuary in nelson little spotted kiwi 75 north island brown kiwi were introduced to the cape sanctuary in hawke s bay between 2008 and 2011 which in turn provided captive raised chicks that were released back into maungataniwha native forest 76 sanctuaries for kiwi are also referred to as kōhanga sites 70 from the māori word for nest or nursery 77 the west coast wildlife centre at franz josef on the southern west coast of new zealand is part of project nest egg breeding the vulnerable local species of kiwi known as the rowi operation nest egg operation nest egg is a programme run by the bnz save the kiwi trust a partnership between the bank of new zealand the department of conservation and the royal forest and bird protection society kiwi eggs and chicks are removed from the wild and hatched and or raised in captivity until big enough to fend for themselves usually when they weigh around 1200 grams 42 ounces they are then returned to the wild an operation nest egg bird has a 65 chance of surviving to adulthood compared to just 5 for wild hatched and raised chicks 78 the tool is used on all kiwi species except little spotted kiwi 1080 poison main article 1080 usage in new zealand in 2004 anti 1080 sodium fluoroacetate activist phillip anderton posed for the new zealand media with a kiwi he claimed had been poisoned an investigation revealed that anderton lied to journalists and the public 79 he had used a kiwi that had been caught in a possum trap extensive monitoring shows that kiwi are not at risk from the use of biodegradable 1080 poison 80 threats introduced mammalian predators namely stoats dogs ferrets and cats are the principal threats to kiwi the biggest threat to kiwi chicks is stoats while dogs are the biggest threat to adult kiwi 57 stoats are responsible for approximately half of kiwi chick deaths in many areas through new zealand young kiwi chicks are vulnerable to stoat predation until they reach about 1 1 2 kg 2 2 2 6 lb in weight at which time they can usually defend themselves cats also to a lesser extent prey on kiwi chicks 57 these predators can cause large and abrupt declines in populations in particular dogs find the distinctive strong scent of kiwi irresistible and easy to track such that they can catch and kill kiwi in seconds motor vehicle strike is a threat to all kiwi where roads cross through their habitat badly set possum traps often kill or maim kiwi 81 habitat destruction is another major threat to kiwi restricted distribution and small size of some kiwi populations increases their vulnerability to inbreeding 57 research has shown that the combined effect of predators and other mortality accidents etc results in less than 5 of kiwi chicks surviving to adulthood 56 relationship to humans detail of the bottom edge of a kahu kiwi showing the distinctive hair like nature of the kiwi feathers the māori traditionally believed that kiwi were under the protection of tāne mahuta god of the forest they were used as food and their feathers were used for kahu kiwi ceremonial cloaks 82 today while kiwi feathers are still used they are gathered from birds that die naturally through road accidents or predation and from captive birds 83 kiwi are no longer hunted and some māori consider themselves the birds guardians 12 scientific documentation in 1813 george shaw named the genus apteryx in his species description of the southern brown kiwi which he called the southern apteryx captain andrew barclay of the ship providence provided shaw with the specimen shaw s description was accompanied by two plates engraved by frederick polydore nodder they were published in volume 24 of the naturalist s miscellany 84 zoos in 1851 london zoo became the first zoo to keep kiwi the first captive breeding took place in 1945 85 as of 2007 only 13 zoos outside new zealand hold kiwi 86 the frankfurt zoo has 12 the berlin zoo has seven walsrode bird park has one the avifauna bird park in the netherlands has three the san diego zoo has five the san diego zoo safari park has one the national zoo in washington dc has eleven the smithsonian conservation biology institute has one and the columbus zoo and aquarium has three 87 88 in 2023 zoo miami apologised for mistreating a kiwi after footage of visitors patting the nocturnal bird under bright lights caused outrage in new zealand 89 as a national symbol see also national symbols of new zealand the kiwi on an 1898 new zealand stamp the kiwi as a symbol first appeared in the late 19th century in new zealand regimental badges it was later featured in the badges of the south canterbury battalion in 1886 and the hastings rifle volunteers in 1887 soon after the kiwi appeared in many military badges and in 1906 when kiwi shoe polish was widely sold in the uk and the us the symbol became more widely known 90 during the first world war the name kiwis for new zealand soldiers came into general use and a giant kiwi now known as the bulford kiwi was carved on the chalk hill above sling camp in england usage has become so widespread that all new zealanders overseas and at home are now commonly referred to as kiwis 91 the kiwi has since become the best known national symbol for new zealand and the bird is prominent in the coat of arms crests and badges of many new zealand cities clubs and organisations at the national level the red silhouette of a kiwi is in the centre of the roundel of the royal new zealand air force 47 92 the kiwi is featured in the logo of the new zealand rugby league and the new zealand national rugby league team are nicknamed the kiwis a kiwi has featured on the reverse side of three new zealand coins the one florin two shilling coin from 1933 to 1966 the twenty cent coin from 1967 to 1990 and the one dollar coin since 1991 in currency trading the new zealand dollar is often referred to as the kiwi 93 in popular culture a song sticky beak the kiwi with words by bob edwards and music by neil roberts was recorded in 1961 sung by julie nelson aged 14 and accompanied by the satins and the don bell orchestra of whangārei a christmas song it portrays sticky beak as insisting on pulling santa claus s sleigh when distributing presents south of the equator 94 how the kiwi lost its wings is a fable written by broadcaster alwyn owen in 1963 it uses elements of māori mythology such as tāne mahuta and the world war i symbol of cowardice white feathers in a pourquoi story explaining features of new zealand birds owen portrays the kiwi as nobly sacrificing its wings and flight in order to protect the trees from depredation by ground dwelling creatures and thereby winning its unique renown owen s story is sometimes described as a maori legend 95 96 it has been recorded as a children s story published as a book 97 was made into an animated film in 1980 98 set to music for the auckland philharmonia orchestra by thomas goss as tāne and the kiwi in 2002 recorded for rnz by orchestra wellington in 2008 99 and performed as a ballet by the royal new zealand ballet in 2022 100 see also birds portal birds of new zealand conservation in new zealand notes ˈ k iː w iː kee wee 4 ˌ æ p t ə ˈ r ɪ dʒ ə d iː ˈ æ p t ər ɪ k s some petrels may exceed this 44 45 references 1 2 brands sheila 14 august 2008 systema naturae 2000 classification family apterygidae project the taxonomicon retrieved 4 february 2009 cite web cs1 maint deprecated archival service link hemming francis ed 1958 1916 opinion 67 one hundred and two bird names placed in the official list of generic names facsimile edition of opinions 1 133 opinions and declarations rendered by the international commission on zoological nomenclature vol 1b london international trust for zoological nomenclature p 179 archived from the original on 19 january 2020 retrieved 4 november 2017 gill b j 2010 checklist of the birds of new zealand norfolk and macquarie islands and the ross dependency antarctica pdf 4th ed te papa press p 19 retrieved 6 march 2026 kiwi lexico uk english dictionary oxford university press archived from the original on 27 february 2020 davies s j j f 2004 grzimek s animal life ecyclopedia vol 8 birds 2nd ed gale p 89 gill frank donsker david rasmussen pamela eds 2025 ratites ostriches to tinamous world bird list version 15 1 international ornithologists union retrieved 11 may 2025 1 2 3 mitchell k j llamas b soubrier j rawlence n j worthy t h wood j lee m s y cooper a 23 may 2014 ancient dna reveals elephant birds and kiwi are sister taxa and clarifies ratite bird evolution pdf science 344 6186 898 900 bibcode 2014sci 344 898m doi 10 1126 science 1251981 hdl 2328 35953 pmid 24855267 s2cid 206555952 retrieved 24 september 2019 birds kiwi san diego zoo archived from the original on 6...