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coefficient 14 however many of these nations saw a shift from low skill labour production to natural resource intensive activities this shift would not benefit low skill workers as much so although their evidence seems to support the kuznets theory in relation to trade liberalization dobson and ramlogan assert that policies for redistribution must be simultaneously implemented in order to mitigate the initial increase in inequality 14 environmental kuznets curve edit hypothetical environmental kuznets curve a translation of the kuznets curve to the use of natural resources the environmental kuznets curve ekc is a hypothesized relationship between environmental quality and economic development 15 various indicators of environmental degradation tend to get worse as modern economic growth occurs until average income reaches a certain point over the course of development 16 17 although subject to continuing debate there is considerable evidence to support the application of the environmental kuznets curve for various environmental health indicators such as water air pollution and ecological footprint which show the inverted u shaped curve as per capita income and or gdp rise 18 19 it has been argued that this trend occurs in the level of many of the environmental pollutants such as sulfur dioxide nitrogen oxide lead ddt chlorofluorocarbons sewage and other chemicals previously released directly into the air or water for example between 1970 and 2006 the united states inflation adjusted gdp grew by 195 the number of cars and trucks in the country more than doubled and the total number of miles driven increased by 178 however during that same period certain regulatory changes and technological innovations led to decreases in annual emissions of carbon monoxide from 197 million tons to 89 million nitrogen oxides emissions from 27 million tons to 19 million sulfur dioxide emissions from 31 million tons to 15 million particulate emissions by 80 and lead emissions by more than 98 20 deforestation may follow a kuznets curve cf forest transition curve among countries with a per capita gdp of at least 4 600 net deforestation has ceased 21 yet it has been argued that wealthier countries are able to maintain forests along with high consumption by exporting deforestation leading to continuing deforestation on a worldwide scale 22 criticisms edit however the ekc model is debatable when applied to other pollutants some natural resource use and biodiversity conservation 23 for example energy land and resource use sometimes called the ecological footprint may not fall with rising income 24 while the ratio of energy per real gdp has fallen total energy use is still rising in most developed countries as are total emission of many greenhouse gases additionally the status of many key ecosystem services provided by ecosystems such as freshwater provision perman et al 2003 soil fertility citation needed and fisheries citation needed have continued to decline in developed countries proponents of the ekc argue that this varied relationship does not necessarily invalidate the hypothesis but instead that the applicability of the kuznets curves to various environmental indicators may differ when considering different ecosystems economics regulatory schemes and technologies at least one critic argues that the us is still struggling to attain the income level necessary to prioritize certain environmental pollutants such as carbon emissions which have yet to follow the ekc 25 yandle et al argue that the ekc has not been found to apply to carbon because most pollutants create localized problems like lead and sulfur so there are a greater urgency and response to cleaning up such pollutants as a country develops the marginal value of cleaning up such pollutants makes a large direct improvement to the quality of citizens lives conversely reducing carbon dioxide emissions does not have a dramatic impact at a local level so the impetus to clean them up is only for the altruistic reason of improving the global environment this becomes a tragedy of the commons where it is most efficient for everyone to pollute and for no one to clean up and everyone is worse as a result hardin 1968 thus even in a country like the us with a high level of income carbon emissions are not decreasing in accordance with the ekc 25 however there seems to be little consensus about whether ekc is formed with regard to co 2 emissions as co 2 is a global pollutant that has yet to prove its validity within kuznet s curve 26 that said yandle et al also concluded that policies that stimulate growth trade liberalization economic restructuring and price reform should be good for the environment 25 other critics point out that researchers also disagree about the shape of the curve when longer term time scales are evaluated for example millimet and stengos regard the traditional inverse u shape as actually being an n shape indicating that pollution increases as a country develops decreases once the threshold gdp is reached and then begins increasing as national income continues to increase while such findings are still being debated they could prove to be important because they pose the concerning question of whether pollution actually begins to decline for good when an economic threshold is reached or whether the decrease is only in local pollutants and pollution is simply exported to poorer developing countries levinson concludes that the environmental kuznets curve is insufficient to support a pollution policy regardless of whether it is laissez faire or interventionist although the literature has been used this way by the press 27 arrow et al argue pollution income progression of agrarian communities clean to industrial economies pollution intensive to service economies cleaner would appear to be false if pollution increases again at the end due to higher levels of income and consumption of the population at large 28 a difficulty with this model is that it lacks predictive power because it is highly uncertain how the next phase of economic development will be characterized citation needed suri and chapman argue that the ekc is not applicable on a global scale as a net pollution reduction may not actually occur globally wealthy nations have a trend of exporting the activities that create the most pollution like manufacturing of clothing and furniture to poorer nations that are still in the process of industrial development suri and chapman 1998 this could mean that as the world s poor nations develop they will have nowhere to export their pollution thus this progression of environmental clean up occurring in conjunction with economic growth cannot be replicated indefinitely because there may be nowhere to export waste and pollution intensive processes however gene grossman and alan b krueger the authors who initially made the correlation between economic growth environmental clean up and the kuznets curve conclude that there is no evidence that environmental quality deteriorates steadily with economic growth 27 stern warns it is very easy to do bad econometrics and says the history of the ekc exemplifies what can go wrong he finds that little or no attention has been paid to the statistical properties of the data used such as serial dependence or stochastic trends in time series and few tests of model adequacy have been carried out or presented however one of the main purposes of doing econometrics is to test which apparent relationships are valid and which are spurious correlations he states his unequivocal finding when we do take such statistics into account and use appropriate techniques we find that the ekc does not exist perman and stern 2003 instead we get a more realistic view of the effect of economic growth and technological changes on environmental quality it seems that most indicators of environmental degradation are monotonically rising in income though the income elasticity is less than one and is not a simple function of income alone time related effects reduce environmental impacts in countries at all levels of income however in rapidly growing middle income countries the scale effect which increases pollution and other degradation overwhelms the time effect for example armenia after gaining its independence from the soviet union has become the country with the least income elasticity in eastern europe and central asia 29 in wealthy countries growth is slower and pollution reduction efforts can overcome the scale effect this is the origin of the apparent ekc effect 30 kuznets curves for steel and other metals edit steel production has been shown to follow a kuznets type curve in the national development cycles of a range of economies including the united states japan the republic of korea and china this discovery and the first usage of the term kuznets curve for steel and metal intensity kuznets curve were by huw mckay in a 2008 working paper mckay 2008 this was subsequently developed by mckay 2012 a body of work on material kuznets curves focused on non ferrous metals has also emerged as academic and policy interest in resource intensity increased during the first two decades of the 21st century citation needed obesity kuznets curve edit the obesity kuznets curve extends simon kuznets s original hypothesis to public health by examining the relationship between economic growth and obesity prevalence the obesity kuznets curve suggests that as incomes rise in low and middle income countries obesity prevalence initially increases due to greater food availability and sedentary lifestyles but eventually declines in high income countries as individuals and governments place greater value on health and invest in prevention this dynamic produces an inverted u shaped curve between income per capita and obesity rates empirical evidence supports the obesity kuznets curve in several contexts the concept was first proposed by grecu and rotthoff who identified an obesity kuznets curve in u s data with evidence particularly pronounced among white females 31 subsequent cross country research by windarti hlaing and kakinaka using panel data from 130 countries between 1975 and 2010 found a clear non linear relationship between income and weight related health status with obesity rising in low income settings and falling in high income settings 32 recent research has refined the hypothesis to account for regional and demographic variation a multi country study of african economies confirmed the obesity kuznets curve while also showing that urbanization trade openness and food production strongly condition obesity trends the authors emphasized the need for regionally tailored policies that address both economic growth and public health 33 gender disparities have also been linked to the obesity kuznets curve abouzaid and rotthoff 2025 showed that in the united states women may experience both higher obesity levels and disproportionate economic consequences contributing to the gender wage gap 34 references edit based on table ti 1 of the supplement archived 8 may 2014 at the wayback machine to thomas piketty s capital in the twenty first century piketty thomas 2013 capital in the twenty first century belknap p 24 kuznets profile archived 18 september 2009 at the wayback machine at new school for social research his discovery of the inverted u shaped relation between income inequality and economic growth 1 2 galbraith james 2007 global inequality and global macroeconomics journal of policy modeling 29 4 587 607 doi 10 1016 j jpolmod 2007 05 008 kuznets simon 1955 economic growth and income inequality american economic review 45 march 1 28 acemoglu d robinson j a 2000 why did the west extend the franchise democracy inequality and growth in historical perspective the quarterly journal of economics 115 4 1167 1199 doi 10 1162 003355300555042 1 2 lan xiaohuan 2024 how china works an introduction to china s state led economic development translated by topp gary palgrave macmillan doi 10 1007 978 981 97 0080 6 isbn 978 981 97 0079 0 fields g 2001 distribution and development a new look at the developing world russel sage foundation new york and the mit press cambridge massachusetts and london 1 2 3 stiglitz joseph e august 1996 some lessons from the east asian miracle the world bank research observer 11 2 151 177 doi 10 1093 wbro 11 2 151 course lectures 1 2 palma j g 26 january 2011 homogeneous middles vs heterogeneous tails and the end of the inverted u the share of the rich is what it s all about cambridge working papers in economics thomas piketty 2014 capital in the twenty first century belknap press isbn 978 0 674 43000 6 fogel robert w december 1987 some notes on the scientific methods of simon kuznets national bureau of economic research pp 26 7 doi 10 3386 w2461 s2cid 142683345 1 2 3 4 dobson stephen carlyn ramlogan april 2009 is there an openness kuznets curve kyklos 62 2 226 238 doi 10 1111 j 1467 6435 2009 00433 x s2cid 154528726 yasin iftikhar ahmad nawaz chaudhary muhammad aslam 22 july 2020 the impact of financial development political institutions and urbanization on environmental degradation evidence from 59 less developed economies environment development and sustainability 23 5 6698 6721 doi 10 1007 s10668 020 00885 w issn 1573 2975 s2cid 220721520 shafik nemat 1994 economic development and environmental quality an econometric analysis oxford economic papers 46 october 757 773 grossman g m krueger a b 1991 environmental impacts of a north american free trade agreement national bureau of economic research working paper 3914 nber doi 10 3386 w3914 yasin iftikhar ahmad nawaz chaudhary m aslam 22 july 2019 catechizing the environmental impression of urbanization financial development and political institutions a circumstance of ecological footprints in 110 developed and less developed countries social indicators research 147 2 621 649 doi 10 1007 s11205 019 02163 3 issn 0303 8300 s2cid 199855869 john tierney 20 april 2009 the richer is greener curve the new york times don t be very worried the wall st journal 23 may 2006 archived from the original on 15 june 2006 cite news cs1 maint bot original url status unknown link returning forests analyzed with the forest identity 2006 by pekka e kauppi department of biological and environmental sciences university of helsinki jesse h ausubel program for the human environment the rockefeller university jingyun fang department of ecology peking university alexander s mather department of geography and environment university of aberdeen roger a sedjo resources for the future and paul e waggoner connecticut agricultural experiment station developing countries often outsource deforestation study finds stanford news 24 november 2010 retrieved 18 june 2015 mills jh waite ta 2009 economic prosperity biodiversity conservation and the environmental kuznets curve ecological economics 68 7 2087 2095 bibcode 2009ecoec 68 2087m doi 10 1016 j ecolecon 2009...