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edit china edit see also shan shui court style panorama along the river during the qingming festival an 18th century copy of 12th century song dynasty original by chinese artist zhang zeduan zhang s original painting is revered by scholars as one of chinese civilization s greatest masterpieces 43 the scroll begins at the right end and culminates above as the emperor boards his yacht to join the festive boats on the river note the exceptionally large viewing stones placed at the far edge of the inlet kuo hsi chinese 郭熙 pinyin guō xī clearing autumn skies over mountains and valleys northern song dynasty c 1070 detail from a horizontal scroll 44 ma yuan chinese 馬遠 1160 1225 dancing and singing peasants returning from work chinese 踏歌圖 13th century southern song chinese collected in the palace museum dong qichang landscape 1597 dong qichang was a high ranking but cantankerous ming civil servant who valued expressiveness over delicacy with collector s seals and poems landscape painting has been called china s greatest contribution to the art of the world 45 and owes its special character to the taoist daoist tradition in chinese culture 46 william watson notes that it has been said that the role of landscape art in chinese painting corresponds to that of the nude in the west as a theme unvarying in itself but made the vehicle of infinite nuances of vision and feeling 47 there are increasingly sophisticated landscape backgrounds to figure subjects showing hunting farming or animals from the han dynasty onward with surviving examples mostly in stone or clay reliefs from tombs which are presumed to follow the prevailing styles in painting no doubt without capturing the full effect of the original paintings 48 the exact status of the later copies of reputed works by famous painters many of whom are recorded in literature before the 10th century is unclear one example is a famous 8th century painting from the imperial collection titled the emperor ming huang traveling in shu this shows the entourage riding through vertiginous mountains of the type typical of later paintings but is in full colour producing an overall pattern that is almost persian in what was evidently a popular and fashionable court style 49 the decisive shift to a monochrome landscape style almost devoid of figures is attributed to wang wei 699 759 also famous as a poet mostly only copies of his works survive 50 from the 10th century onward an increasing number of original paintings survive and the best works of the song dynasty 960 1279 southern school remain among the most highly regarded in what has been an uninterrupted tradition to the present day chinese convention valued the paintings of the amateur scholar gentleman often a poet as well over those produced by professionals though the situation was more complex than that 51 if they include any figures they are very often such persons or sages contemplating the mountains famous works have accumulated numbers of red appreciation seals and often poems added by later owners the qianlong emperor 1711 1799 was a prolific adder of his own poems following earlier emperors the shan shui tradition was never intended to represent actual locations even when named after them as in the convention of the eight views 52 a different style produced by workshops of professional court artists painted official views of imperial tours and ceremonies with the primary emphasis on highly detailed scenes of crowded cities and grand ceremonials from a high viewpoint these were painted on scrolls of enormous length in bright colour example below chinese sculpture also achieves the difficult feat of creating effective landscapes in three dimensions there is a long tradition of the appreciation of viewing stones naturally formed boulders typically limestone from the banks of mountain rivers that has been eroded into fantastic shapes were transported to the courtyards and gardens of the literati probably associated with these is the tradition of carving much smaller boulders of jade or some other semi precious stone into the shape of a mountain including tiny figures of monks or sages chinese gardens also developed a highly sophisticated aesthetic much earlier than those in the west the karensansui or japanese dry garden of zen buddhism takes the garden even closer to being a work of sculpture representing a highly abstracted landscape li cheng chinese 李成 pinyin lǐ chéng wade giles li ch eng 919 967 luxuriant forest among distant peaks detail liaoning provincial museum 10th century china fan kuan chinese 范寬 pinyin fàn kuān wade giles fan k uan c 960 c 1030 travellers among mountains and streams 谿山行旅 ink and slight color on silk dimensions of 6¾ ft x 2½ ft 11th century china 53 national palace museum taipei 54 detail from the hand scroll pure and remote view of streams and mountains one of xia gui s most important works 13th century china li kan bamboos and rock c 1300 ad china tao chi late 17th century china tang yin a fisher in autumn 1523 ad china shen zhou poet on a mountain c 1500 painting and poem by shen zhou white clouds encircle the mountain waist like a sash stone steps mount high into the void where the narrow path leads far alone leaning on my rustic staff i gaze idly into the distance my longing for the notes of a flute is answered in the murmurings of the gorge 55 cai han and jin xiaozhu autumn flowers and white pheasants 17th century china shitao pine pavilion near a spring 1675 collection of the shanghai museum 17th century china japan edit four from a set of sixteen sliding room partitions made for a 16th century japanese abbot typically for later japanese landscapes the main focus is on a feature in the foreground see also list of national treasures of japan paintings japanese art initially adapted chinese styles to reflect their interest in narrative themes in art with scenes set in landscapes mixing with those showing palace or city scenes using the same high view point cutting away roofs as necessary these appeared in the very long yamato e scrolls of scenes illustrating the tale of genji and other subjects mostly from the 12th and 13th centuries the concept of the gentleman amateur painter had little resonance in feudal japan where artists were generally professionals with a strong bond to their master and his school rather than the classic artists from the distant past from which chinese painters tended to draw their inspiration 56 painting was initially fully coloured often brightly so and the landscape never overwhelms the figures who are often rather oversized the scene from the biography of the priest ippen illustrated below is from a scroll that in full measures 37 8 cm 802 0 cm for only one of twelve scrolls illustrating the life of a buddhist monk like their western counterparts monasteries and temples commissioned many such works and these have had a better chance of survival than courtly equivalents 57 even rarer are survivals of landscape byōbu folding screens and hanging scrolls which seem to have common in court circles the tale of genji has an episode where members of the court produce the best paintings from their collections for a competition these were closer to chinese shan shui but still fully coloured 58 many more pure landscape subjects survive from the 15th century onward several key artists are zen buddhist clergy and worked in a monochrome style with greater emphasis on brush strokes in the chinese manner some schools adopted a less refined style with smaller views giving greater emphasis to the foreground a type of image that had an enduring appeal for japanese artists and came to be called the japanese style is in fact first found in china this combines one or more large birds animals or trees in the foreground typically to one side in a horizontal composition with a wider landscape beyond often only covering portions of the background later versions of this style often dispensed with a landscape background altogether the ukiyo e style that developed from the 16th century onward first in painting and then in coloured woodblock prints that were cheap and widely available initially concentrated on the human figure individually and in groups but from the late 18th century landscape ukiyo e developed under hokusai and hiroshige to become much the best known type of japanese landscape art 59 tenshō shūbun a zen buddhist monk an early figure in the revival of chinese styles in japan reading in a bamboo grove 1446 japan kanō masanobu 15th century founder of the kanō school which dominated japanese brush painting until the 19th century zhou maoshu appreciating lotuses hanging scroll 60 the bridge at ubi a famous screen composition found in many 16th or 17th century versions showing the colourful abstracted style of the professional painters 61 yamato e style of japanese painting a scene from the biography of the priest ippen yamato e scroll 1299 persia and india edit a rare pure landscape in a persian miniature with a river tabriz 1st quarter of 14th century though there are some landscape elements in earlier art the landscape tradition of the persian miniature really begins in the ilkhanid period largely under chinese influence rocky mountainous country is preferred which is shown full of animals and plants which are carefully and individually depicted as are rock formations the particular convention of the elevated viewpoint that developed in the tradition fills most of the vertical format picture spaces with the landscape though clouds are also typically shown in the sky shown in a curling convention drawn from chinese art usually everything seen is fairly close to the viewer and there are few distant views normally all landscape images show narrative scenes with figures but there are a few drawn pure landscape scenes in albums hindu painting had long set scenes amid lush vegetation as many of the stories depicted demanded mughal painting combined this and the persian style and in miniatures of royal hunts often depicted wide landscapes scenes set during the monsoon rains with dark clouds and flashes of lightning are popular later influence from european prints is evident the persian hero rustam sleeps while his horse rakhsh fends off a lion probably an early work by sultan mohammed 1515 20 the feast of sada folio 22v from the shahnama of shah tahmasp sultan mohammed c 1525 khusraw discovers shirin bathing in a pool a favourite scene here from 1548 the black stream is silver that has oxidized sudama bows at the glimpse of krishna s golden palace in dwarka ca 1775 1790 pahari painting the mughal emperor jahangir s lion hunt c 1615 in a persian style landscape jahangir hunting with a falcon in western style country the gopis plead with krishna to return their clothing 1560s techniques edit an 18th century korean version of the chinese literati style by jeong seon who was unusual in often painting landscapes from life a landscape painter at artist point in yellowstone national park most early landscapes are clearly imaginary although from very early on townscape views are clearly intended to represent actual cities with varying degrees of accuracy various techniques were used to simulate the randomness of natural forms in invented compositions the medieval advice of cennino cennini to copy ragged crags from small rough rocks was apparently followed by both poussin and thomas gainsborough while degas copied cloud forms from a crumpled handkerchief held up against the light 62 the system of alexander cozens used random ink blots to give the basic shape of an invented landscape to be elaborated by the artist 63 the distinctive background view across lake geneva to the le môle peak in the miraculous draught of fishes by konrad witz 1444 is often cited as the first western rural landscape to show a specific scene 64 the landscape studies by dürer clearly represent actual scenes which can be identified in many cases and were at least partly made on the spot the drawings by fra bartolomeo also seem clearly sketched from nature dürer s finished works seem generally to use invented landscapes although the spectacular bird s eye view in his engraving nemesis shows an actual view in the alps with additional elements several landscapists are known to have made drawings and watercolour sketches from nature but the evidence for early oil painting being done outside is limited the pre raphaelite brotherhood made special efforts in this direction but it was not until the introduction of ready mixed oil paints in tubes in the 1870s followed by the portable box easel that painting en plein air became widely practiced a curtain of mountains at the back of the landscape is standard in wide roman views and even more so in chinese landscapes relatively little space is given to the sky in early works in either tradition the chinese often used mist or clouds between mountains and also sometimes show clouds in the sky far earlier than western artists who initially mainly use clouds as supports or covers for divine figures or heaven both panel paintings and miniatures in manuscripts usually had a patterned or gold sky or background above the horizon until about 1400 but frescos by giotto and other italian artists had long shown plain blue skies the single surviving altarpiece from melchior broederlam completed for champmol in 1399 has a gold sky populated not only by god and angels but also a flying bird a coastal scene in the turin milan hours has a sky overcast with carefully observed clouds in woodcuts a large blank space can cause the paper to sag during printing so dürer and other artists often include clouds or squiggles representing birds to avoid this the monochrome chinese tradition has used ink on silk or paper since its inception with a great emphasis on the individual brushstroke to define the ts un or wrinkles in mountain sides and the other features of the landscape western watercolour is a more tonal medium even with underdrawing visible related scapes edit el greco view of toledo c 1596 1600 oil on canvas 47 75 42 75 cm metropolitan museum of art new york city is one of the two surviving landscapes of toledo painted by him the aggressive paint handling in the sky prefigures 20th century expressionism arkhip kuindzhi moonlit night on the dnieper 1882 czeslaw znamierowski the green lakes 1955 ussr lithuania socialist realism traditionally landscape art depicts the surface of the earth but there are other sorts of landscapes such as moonscapes skyscapes and cloudscapes depict clouds weatherforms and atmospheric conditions moonscapes show the landscape of a moon seascapes depict oceans or beaches riverscapes depict rivers or creeks cityscapes or townscapes depict cities urban landscapes battle scenes are a subdivision of military painting which when depicting a battle from afar are set within a landscape seascape or even a cityscape hardscapes are paved areas like streets and sidewalks housing developm...