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edit the royal spanish academy madrid prescription presupposes authorities whose judgments may come to be followed by many other speakers and writers for english these authorities tend to be books h w fowler s modern english usage was widely taken as an authority for british english for much of the 20th century 24 strunk and white s the elements of style has done similarly for american english citation needed the duden grammar first edition 1880 has a similar status for german dictionaries edit although lexicographers often see their work as purely descriptive dictionaries are widely regarded as prescriptive authorities 25 they are invoked in everyday conversations and word based game shows as authorities on how words are supposed to be used and speakers frequently appeal to earlier senses or etymologies of words to argue for what a word really means bourdieu characterises dictionaries as providing a normalized language 26 in practice however major dictionaries tend to operate descriptively both merriam webster and the oxford english dictionary oed regularly publish new entries or update existing definitions based on observed usage adding a word once its frequency passes a threshold rather than attempting to create or sanction new vocabulary both also contextualise definitions with real life usage examples with merriam webster drawing on notably current sources 27 28 the oed s own description of itself as the accepted authority on the english language illustrates the tension the phrase invites readers to treat the dictionary as prescriptive even though the dictionary s methodology is largely descriptive some dictionaries lower the degree of normalisation further by mapping regional variation the dictionary of american regional english dare for example aims at representing the full panoply of american regional vocabulary cataloguing which senses are part of the shared norms of which communities rather than declaring a single standard 29 books such as lynne truss s eats shoots leaves 2003 which argues for stricter adherence to prescriptive punctuation rules also seek to exert an influence formal regulation edit main article list of language regulators linguistic prescription is imposed by regulation in some places the french academy in paris is the national body in france whose recommendations about the french language are often followed in the french speaking world francophonie though not legally enforceable in germany and the netherlands recent spelling and punctuation reforms such as the german orthographic reform of 1996 were devised by teams of linguists commissioned by the respective governments and then implemented by statutes some met with widespread dissent examples of national prescriptive bodies and initiatives are afrikaans the taalkommissie language commission is responsible for the compilation of the afrikaanse woordelys en spelreëls afrikaans word list and spelling rules an orthography of formal standardized afrikaans albanian the social sciences and albanological section of the academy of sciences of albania for the tosk variety of the albanian standard language canadian french the office québécois de la langue française in the canadian province of québec where french is perceived to be particularly threatened by the incursion of english dutch in the netherlands and the flanders region of belgium standardized spelling norms are compulsory for government publications and in education see wordlist of the dutch language the flemish press and other media also adhere to these rules in the netherlands some media apply a slightly adapted spelling as outlined in the white booklet french the recommendations of the académie française a national body are legally unenforceable but they are often followed by standard french speakers german the german orthography reform of 1996 established statutory national normative spelling usages for each of the german speaking countries germany austria liechtenstein switzerland and belgium it has been disregarded by many people and it became so controversial in the state of schleswig holstein that in a plebiscite held there in 1998 56 4 of voters opposed its implementation notwithstanding the schleswig holstein parliament reversed the referendum outcome in 1999 many major german newspapers chose to implement the reforms only partially e g axel springer ag der spiegel or to reject it entirely ending a period when combined german spelling although officially only necessary in government and educational use was the widespread de facto standard italian the accademia della crusca the italian language academic body polish the polish language council for standard polish which aims to popularize polish language knowledge provide guidance on standard usage as well as formulate the rules of orthography 30 the polish prescriptive policy recognizes two subvarieties of standard polish the model official norm polish norma wzorcowa and the colloquial vernacular norm polish norma użytkowa with the former being a highly traditionalistic idiom for written language and public usage and the latter being a more liberal idiom for private contexts that is more permissive for loanwords and deviations from traditional usage 31 32 the latter is also considered to include certain educated regional forms known as regionalizmy 33 the term standard polish is not much used in poland instead the name polszczyzna ogólna general common polish is preferred with the codified standard dialect being prescribed as correct polish 34 portuguese the portuguese language orthographic agreement of 1990 sets a standard orthography for the language it has been made into law in both brazil 2009 and portugal 2008 romanian the romanian academy for standard romanian whose interpretations and instructions are approved by the romanian state and other substances where romanian is authoritatively recognized e g the european union and vojvodina in moldova the only country besides romania where romanian is the state language it is monitored by the institute of linguistics of academy of sciences of moldova russian in 1783 the russian academy was founded in 1841 it merged to the russian academy of sciences and became its department of the russian language and literature which existed until 1927 later two authoritative prescriptive russian dictionaries were written by dmitry ushakov et al explanatory dictionary of the russian language 1935 1940 and sergei ozhegov dictionary of the russian language 1949 in 1952 a department of speech culture was formed at the institute of linguistics of the ussr academy of sciences 9 since 1958 russian language norms have been regulated by the v v vinogradov russian language institute of the russian academy of sciences spanish the real academia española in affiliation with the association of spanish language academies for standard spanish in 21 countries turkish the turkish language association founded in 1932 35 by atatürk regulates the turkish language style manuals edit main article style guide other kinds of authorities exist in specific settings most commonly in the form of style guidebooks also called style guides manuals of style style books or style sheets style guides vary in form and may be alphabetical usage dictionaries comprehensive manuals divided into numerous subsection by the facet of language or very compact works insistent upon only a few matters of particular importance to the publisher some aim to be comprehensive only for a specific field deferring to more general audience guides on matters that are not particular to the discipline in question there are different types of style guides by purpose and audience because the genres of writing and the audiences of each manual are different style manuals often conflict with each other even within the same vernacular of english many publishers have established an internal house style specifying preferred spellings and grammatical forms such as serial commas how to write acronyms and various awkward expressions to avoid most of these are internal documentation for the publisher s staff though various newspapers universities and other organizations have made theirs available for public inspection and sometimes even sell them as books e g the new york times manual of style and usage and the economist style guide in a few cases an entire publishing sector complies with a publication that originated as a house style manual such as the chicago manual of style and new hart s rules in non fiction book publishing in the united states and the united kingdom respectively and the associated press stylebook in american news style others are by self appointed advocates whose rules are propagated in the popular press as in proper cantonese pronunciation the aforementioned fowler and strunk white were among the self appointed as are some modern authors of style works like bryan a garner and his modern english usage formerly modern american usage various style guides are used for academic papers and professional journals and have become de facto standards in particular fields though the bulk of their material pertains to formatting of source citations in mutually conflicting ways some examples are those issued by the american medical association the modern language association and the modern humanities research association there are many others scientific style and format by the council of science editors seeks to normalize style in scientific journal publishing based where possible on standards issued by bodies like the international standards organization none of these works have any sort of legal or regulatory authority though some governments produce their own house style books for internal use they still have authority in the sense that a student may be marked down for failure to follow a specified style manual a professional publisher may enforce compliance a publication may require its employees to use house style as a matter of on the job competence a well respected style guide and usually one intended for a general audience may also have the kind of authority that a dictionary does consult as a reference work to satisfy personal curiosity or settle an argument origins edit historically linguistic prescriptivism originates in a standard language when a society establishes social stratification and a socio economic hierarchy the spoken and written language usages of the authorities state military church is preserved as the standard language departures from this standard language may jeopardize social success see social class sometimes archaisms and honorific stylizations may be deliberately introduced or preserved to distinguish the prestige form of the language from contemporary colloquial language likewise the style of language used in ritual also differs from everyday speech 36 special ceremonial languages known only to a select few spiritual leaders are found throughout the world liturgical latin has served a similar function for centuries traditional and simplified chinese characters when a culture develops a writing system orthographic rules for the consistent transcription of culturally important transactions such as laws scriptures contracts or poetry allow a large number of discussants to understand written conversations easily and across multiple generations early historical trends in literacy and alphabetization were closely tied to the influence of various religious institutions western christianity propagated the latin alphabet eastern orthodoxy spread the greek and cyrillic alphabets judaism used the hebrew alphabet and islam the arabic script hinduism used the devanagari script 37 in certain traditions strict adherence to prescribed spellings and pronunciations was and remains of great spiritual importance islamic naming conventions and greetings are notable examples of the linguistic prescription being a prerequisite to spiritual righteousness another commonly cited example of prescriptive language usage closely associated with social propriety is the system of japanese honorific speech most if not all widely spoken languages demonstrate some degree of social codification in how they conform to prescriptive rules linguistic prestige is a central research topic within sociolinguistics notions of linguistic prestige apply to different dialects of the same language and also to separate distinct languages in multilingual regions prestige level disparity often leads to diglossia speakers in certain social contexts consciously choose a prestige language or dialect over a less prestigious one even if it is their native tongue ptolemaic hieroglyphics from the temple of kom ombo government bureaucracy tends toward prescriptivism as a means of enforcing functional continuity such prescriptivism dates from ancient egypt where bureaucrats preserved the spelling of the middle kingdom of egypt into the ptolemaic period through the standard usage of egyptian hieroglyphics 38 sources edit from the earliest attempts at prescription in classical times grammarians have based their norms on observed prestige use of language modern prescriptivist textbooks which draw heavily on descriptive linguistic analysis the prescription may privilege some existing forms over others for the sake of maximizing clarity and precision in language use others are subjective judgments of what constitutes good taste some reflect the promotion of one class or region within a language community over another which can become politically controversial prescription can also reflect ethical considerations as in prohibiting swear words words referring to elements of sexuality or toilet hygiene may be regarded as obscene blasphemies against religion may be forbidden in the 21st century political correctness objects to the use of words perceived as offensive 39 some elements of prescription in english are sometimes thought by whom to have been based on the norms of latin grammar robert lowth is frequently cited by whom citation needed as having done so clarification needed but he specifically objected to forcing the english under the rules of a foreign language 40 criticisms edit prescriptivism is often subject to criticism many linguists such as geoffrey pullum and other posters to language log are skeptical of the quality of advice given in many usage guides including highly regarded books like strunk and white s the elements of style 41 linguists point out that popular books on english usage written by journalists or novelists e g simon heffer s strictly english the correct way to write and why it matters often make basic errors in linguistic analysis 42 43 a frequent criticism is that prescription has a tendency to favor the language of one particular area or social class over others and thus militates against linguistic diversity 44 frequently a standard dialect is associated with the upper class for example the united kingdom s received pronunciation rp rp has now lost muc...