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he population of the city with european settlers numbering approximately 1 500 16 14 and people of african descent numbering 375 with 300 of that 375 enslaved and 75 free 16 22 while it has been claimed that african slaves comprised 40 of the small population of the city at that time 17 this claim has not been substantiated during the mid 1600s farms of free blacks covered 130 acres 53 ha where washington square park later developed 18 the dutch briefly regained the city in 1673 renaming the city new orange before permanently ceding the colony of new netherland to the english for what is now suriname in november 1674 the new english rulers of the formerly dutch new amsterdam and new netherland renamed the settlement back to new york as the colony grew and prospered sentiment also grew for greater autonomy in the context of the glorious revolution in england jacob leisler led leisler s rebellion and effectively controlled the city and surrounding areas from 1689 to 1691 before being arrested and executed new york harbor 1727 by 1700 the lenape population of new york had diminished to 200 19 by 1703 42 of households in new york had slaves a higher percentage than in philadelphia or boston 20 the 1735 libel trial of john peter zenger in the city was a seminal influence on freedom of the press in north america it would be a standard for the basic articles of freedom in the united states declaration of independence by the 1740s with expansion of settlers 20 of the population of new york were slaves totaling about 2 500 people 18 after a series of fires in 1741 the city became panicked that blacks planned to burn the city in a conspiracy with some poor whites historians believe their alarm was mostly fabrication and fear but officials rounded up 31 blacks and 4 whites all of whom were convicted of arson and executed city officials executed 13 blacks by burning them alive and hanged 4 whites and 18 blacks 21 in 1754 columbia university was founded under charter by george ii of great britain as king s college in lower manhattan 22 the stamp act and other british measures fomented dissent particularly among the sons of liberty who maintained a long running skirmish with locally stationed british troops over liberty poles from 1766 to 1776 the stamp act congress met in new york city in 1765 in the first organized resistance to british authority across the colonies after the major defeat of the continental army in the battle of long island general george washington withdrew to manhattan island but with the subsequent defeat at the battle of fort washington the island was effectively left to the british the city became a haven for loyalist refugees becoming a british stronghold for the entire war consequently the area also became the focal point for washington s espionage and intelligence gathering throughout the war in 1771 bear market was established along the hudson river shoreline on land donated by trinity church and replaced by washington market in 1813 23 new york city was greatly damaged twice by fires of suspicious origin during british military rule the city became the political and military center of operations for the british in north america for the remainder of the war and a haven for loyalist refugees continental army officer nathan hale was hanged in manhattan for espionage in addition the british began to hold the majority of captured american prisoners of war aboard prison ships in wallabout bay across the east river in brooklyn more americans died from neglect aboard these ships than died in all the battles of the war british occupation lasted until november 25 1783 george washington triumphantly returned to the city that day as the last british forces left the city starting in 1785 the congress met in new york city under the articles of confederation in 1789 new york city became the first national capital of the united states under the new united states constitution the constitution also created the current congress of the united states and its first sitting was at federal hall on wall street the first united states supreme court sat there the united states bill of rights was drafted and ratified there george washington was inaugurated at federal hall 24 new york city remained the capital of the u s until 1790 when the role was transferred to philadelphia 19th century edit main articles history of new york city 1784 1854 and history of new york city 1855 1897 sidney s map twelve miles around new york 1849 lithograph by james charles sidney cooper union at astor place one of lower manhattan s most storied buildings where abraham lincoln gave his famed cooper union speech on february 27 1860 new york grew as an economic center first as a result of alexander hamilton s policies and practices as the first secretary of the treasury and later with the opening of the erie canal in 1825 which connected the atlantic port to the vast agricultural markets of the north american interior 25 26 immigration resumed after being slowed by wars in europe and a new street grid system the commissioners plan of 1811 expanded to encompass all of manhattan early in the 19th century the landfill was used to expand lower manhattan from the natural hudson shoreline at greenwich street to west street 27 in 1898 the modern city of new york was formed with the consolidation of brooklyn until then an independent city manhattan and outlying areas 28 the borough of brooklyn incorporated the independent city of brooklyn recently joined to manhattan by the brooklyn bridge in lower manhattan municipal governments contained within the boroughs were abolished and the county governmental functions housed in lower manhattan after unification were absorbed by the city or each borough 29 20th century edit main articles history of new york city 1898 1945 history of new york city 1946 1977 and history of new york city 1978 present view from the woolworth building in 1913 lower manhattan in 1931 lower manhattan photographed in 1938 using agfacolor washington market was located between barclay and hubert streets and from greenwich street to west street 30 it was demolished in the 1960s and replaced by a new independence plaza washington market park and other developments construction boom edit lower manhattan retains the most irregular street grid plans in the borough throughout the early decades of the 1900s the area experienced a construction boom with major towers such as 40 wall street the american international building woolworth building and 20 exchange place being erected many new water crossings into lower manhattan were built at this time including the williamsburg bridge in 1903 31 and the manhattan bridge in 1909 32 the holland tunnel to new jersey opened in 1927 33 while the brooklyn battery tunnel to brooklyn opened in 1950 and was the last major fixed crossing to be built to lower manhattan 34 despite these road connections opening the economic center of new york city began to shift from lower manhattan to midtown with the opening of many commuter rail terminals at the turn of the 20th century the original penn station opened in 1910 35 the hudson and manhattan railroad now path extension to 33rd street was completed in 1910 36 and grand central terminal opened in 1913 37 on march 25 1911 the triangle shirtwaist factory fire in greenwich village took the lives of 146 garment workers which would eventually lead to great advancements in the city s fire department building codes and workplace regulations throughout the first half of the 20th century new york became a world center for industry commerce and communication interborough rapid transit the first new york city subway company began operating in 1904 the area s demographics stabilized labor unionization brought new protections and affluence to the working class the city s government and infrastructure underwent a dramatic overhaul under fiorello la guardia and his controversial parks commissioner robert moses ended the blight of many tenement areas by demolishing slums factories and working class neighborhoods through public works such as the high line the west side highway and fdr drive built housing projects expanded new parks rebuilt streets and zoning controls especially in lower manhattan the zoning changes were intended to displace the industrial workforce by removing zoning protection for industrial space and incentivizing upscale residential and clerical redevelopment the port of new york despite its physical suitability for berthing and its close proximity to europe began to deteriorate due to the city s unwillingness to invest or modernise the port and the deindustrialization zoning policy however a large number of small scale dynamic and highly specialized industries persisted despite the city s efforts such as the garment industry which was closely tied to the fashion industry in midtown or the printing industry linked with the publishing industry in the 1950s a few new buildings were constructed in lower manhattan including an 11 story building at 156 william street in 1955 38 a 27 story office building at 20 broad street a 12 story building at 80 pine street a 26 story building at 123 william street and a few others were built in 1957 38 by the end of the decade lower manhattan had become economically depressed in comparison with midtown manhattan which was booming with the continued march uptown david rockefeller spearheaded widespread urban renewal efforts in lower manhattan beginning with constructing one chase manhattan plaza the new headquarters for his bank he established the downtown lower manhattan association dlma which drew up plans for broader revitalization of lower manhattan with the development of a proposed world trade center at the heart of these plans the original dlma plans called for the world trade center to be built along the east river between old slip and fulton street after negotiations with new jersey governor richard j hughes the port authority decided to build the world trade center on a site along the hudson river and the west side highway rather than the east river site citation needed view from an airplane in 1981 prior to the september 11 attacks when the lower manhattan skyline was dominated by the twin towers of the former world trade center when building the world trade center 1 2 million cubic yards 917 000 m 3 of material was excavated from the site 39 rather than dumping the spoil at sea or in landfills the fill material was used to expand the manhattan shoreline across west street creating battery park city 40 the result was a 700 foot 210 m extension into the river running six blocks or 1 484 feet 452 m covering 92 acres 37 ha providing a 1 2 mile 1 9 km riverfront esplanade and over 30 acres 12 ha of parks 41 through much of its history the area south of chambers street was mainly a commercial district with a small population of residents in 1960 it was home to about 4 000 42 construction of battery park city on landfill from construction of the world trade center brought many new residents to the area gateway plaza the first battery park city development was finished in 1983 the project s centerpiece the world financial center consists of four luxury highrise towers by the turn of the century battery park city was mostly completed with the exception of some ongoing construction on west street around this time lower manhattan reached its highest population of business tenants and full time residents citation needed these developments struggled to become fully occupied at desirable rents with relatively high vacancy rates 43 in 1993 the downtown lower manhattan association contributed to a city plan calling for the revitalization of lower manhattan the plan included recommended zoning changes tax incentives to encourage new tenants and the conversion of commercial buildings into apartments it also called for the creation of a business improvement district called the alliance for downtown new york to help spur the area s renewal between 1995 and 2014 15 8 million square feet of office space was converted to residential or hotel use as a result lower manhattan s residential population rose from 14 000 to 60 000 44 21st century edit main article history of new york city 1978 present united airlines flight 175 hits the south tower of the original world trade center on september 11 2001 the lower manhattan skyline viewed from governors island in the early 21st century the meatpacking district once the sparsely populated province of after hours bdsm clubs and transgender prostitutes gained a reputation as new york city s trendiest neighborhood 45 september 11 attacks edit during the september 11 attacks in 2001 two of four hijacked planes were flown into the twin towers of the original world trade center and the towers collapsed the 7 world trade center was not struck by a plane but uncontrolled fires that were caused by falling debris resulted in the building s collapse a first in the history of steel framed skyscrapers 46 the 3 4 5 and 6 world trade center buildings were damaged beyond repair or destroyed and soon after demolished the collapse of the twin towers also caused extensive damage to surrounding buildings and skyscrapers in lower manhattan a total of 2 753 people including those on the planes were killed in new york 47 about 400 000 people including rescue workers and residents of the area were exposed to toxic dust and debris many developed serious respiratory illnesses cancers and other harms arising from the attack and 3 496 died 48 post 9 11 rebuilding edit following september 11 lower manhattan lost much of its economy and office space but has since rebounded significantly private sector employment reached 233 000 at the end of 2016 the highest levels since the end of 2001 this was largely due to growth and diversification in the local workforce with gains in employment sectors like technology advertising media and information as well as hotel restaurants retailing and health care 49 as of 2016 lower manhattan s business district is home to approximately 700 retail stores and 500 bars and restaurants 50 the lower manhattan development corporation has consummated plans to rebuild downtown manhattan by adding new streets buildings and office space the national september 11 memorial at the site was opened to the public on september 11 2011 while the national september 11 museum was officially inaugurated by president barack obama on may 15 2014 51 as of the time of its opening in november 2014 the new one world trade center formerly known as the freedom tower is the tallest skyscraper in the western hemisphere 52 and the seventh tallest in the world at 1 776 feet 541 m 53 while other skyscrapers are under construction at the site the occupy wall street protests in zuccotti park formerly known as liberty plaza park began in the financial district on september 17 2011 receiving global attention and spawning the occupy mov...