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the early 1970s rca sold out to univac and ge sold its business to honeywell between 1986 and 1990 honeywell was bought out by bull univac became a division of sperry which later merged with burroughs to form unisys corporation in 1986 in 1984 estimated sales of desktop computers 11 6 billion exceeded mainframe computers 11 4 billion for the first time ibm received the vast majority of mainframe revenue 26 during the 1980s minicomputer based systems grew more sophisticated and were able to displace the lower end of the mainframes these computers sometimes called departmental computers were typified by the digital equipment corporation vax series in 1991 at t corporation briefly owned ncr during the same period companies found that servers based on microcomputer designs could be deployed at a fraction of the acquisition price and offer local users much greater control over their own systems given the it policies and practices at that time terminals used for interacting with mainframe systems were gradually replaced by personal computers consequently demand plummeted and new mainframe installations were restricted mainly to financial services and government in the early 1990s there was a rough consensus among industry analysts that the mainframe was a dying market as mainframe platforms were increasingly replaced by personal computer networks infoworld s stewart alsop predicted that the last mainframe would be unplugged in 1996 in 1993 he cited cheryl currid a computer industry analyst as saying that the last mainframe will stop working on december 31 1999 27 a reference to the anticipated year 2000 problem y2k that trend started to turn around in the late 1990s as corporations found new uses for their existing mainframes and as the price of data networking collapsed in most parts of the world encouraging trends toward more centralized computing the growth of e business also dramatically increased the number of back end transactions processed by mainframe software as well as the size and throughput of databases batch processing such as billing became even more important and larger with the growth of e business and mainframes are particularly adept at large scale batch computing another factor currently increasing mainframe use is the development of the linux operating system which arrived on ibm mainframe systems in 1999 linux allows users to take advantage of open source software combined with mainframe hardware ras rapid expansion and development in emerging markets particularly people s republic of china is also spurring major mainframe investments to solve exceptionally difficult computing problems e g providing unified extremely high volume online transaction processing databases for 1 billion consumers across multiple industries banking insurance credit reporting government services etc in late 2000 ibm introduced 64 bit z architecture acquired numerous software companies such as cognos and introduced those software products to the mainframe ibm s quarterly and annual reports in the 2000s usually reported increasing mainframe revenues and capacity shipments however ibm s mainframe hardware business has not been immune to the recent overall downturn in the server hardware market or to model cycle effects for example in the 4th quarter of 2009 ibm s system z hardware revenues decreased by 27 year over year but mips millions of instructions per second shipments increased 4 per year over the past two years 28 alsop had himself photographed in 2000 symbolically eating his own words death to the mainframe 29 in 2012 nasa powered down its last mainframe an ibm system z9 30 however ibm s successor to the z9 the z10 led a new york times reporter to state four years earlier that mainframe technology hardware software and services remains a large and lucrative business for i b m and mainframes are still the back office engines behind the world s financial markets and much of global commerce 31 as of 2010 update while mainframe technology represented less than 3 of ibm s revenues it continue d to play an outsized role in big blue s results 32 ibm has continued to launch new generations of mainframes the ibm z13 in 2015 33 the z14 in 2017 34 35 the z15 in 2019 36 and the z16 in 2022 the latter featuring among other things an integrated on chip ai accelerator and the new telum microprocessor 37 differences from supercomputers edit a supercomputer is a computer at the leading edge of data processing capability with respect to calculation speed supercomputers are used for scientific and engineering problems high performance computing which crunch numbers and data 38 while mainframes focus on transaction processing the differences are mainframes are built to be reliable for transaction processing measured by tpc metrics not used or helpful for most supercomputing applications as it is commonly understood in the business world the commercial exchange of goods services or money a typical transaction as defined by the transaction processing performance council 39 updates a database system for inventory control goods airline reservations services or banking money by adding a record a transaction may refer to a set of operations including disk read writes operating system calls or some form of data transfer from one subsystem to another which is not measured by the processing speed of the cpu transaction processing is not exclusive to mainframes but is also used by microprocessor based servers and online networks supercomputer performance is measured in floating point operations per second flops 40 or in traversed edges per second or teps 41 metrics that are not very meaningful for mainframe applications while mainframes are sometimes measured in millions of instructions per second mips although the definition depends on the instruction mix measured nb 5 examples of integer operations measured by mips include adding numbers together checking values or moving data around in memory while moving information to and from storage so called i o is most helpful for mainframes and within memory only helping indirectly floating point operations are mostly addition subtraction and multiplication of binary floating point in supercomputers measured by flops with enough digits of precision to model continuous phenomena such as weather prediction and nuclear simulations only recently standardized decimal floating point not used in supercomputers are appropriate for monetary values such as those useful for mainframe applications in terms of computational speed supercomputers are more powerful 42 mainframes and supercomputers cannot always be clearly distinguished up until the early 1990s many supercomputers were based on a mainframe architecture with supercomputing extensions an example of such a system is the hitac s 3800 which was instruction set compatible with ibm system 370 mainframes and could run the hitachi vos3 operating system a fork of ibm mvs 43 the s 3800 therefore can be seen as being both simultaneously a supercomputer and also an ibm compatible mainframe in 2007 44 an amalgamation of the different technologies and architectures for supercomputers and mainframes has led to a so called gameframe see also edit channel i o cloud computing commodity computing computer types failover gameframe history of ibm mainframe operating systems list of transistorized computers master the mainframe contest timeline of operating systems notes edit some had been introduced in the 1960s but their deployment became more common in the 1970s graphics terminals were available but tended to be restricted to niche applications e g the ibm 709 had channels in 1958 sometimes computers sometimes more limited resource consumption for billing and performance purposes is measured in units of a million service units msus but the definition of msu varies from processor to processor so that msus are useless for comparing processor performance references edit blake knox m w morris g c 1976 minicomputer software development using a maxicomputer proceedings of the acm sigmini sigplan interface meeting on programming systems in the small processor environment association for computing machinery pp 66 69 doi 10 1145 800236 807095 isbn 978 1 4503 7894 9 daniel p siewiorek c gordon bell allen newell section 4 maxicomputers computer structures principles and examples mcgraw hill vance ashlee july 20 2005 ibm preps big iron fiesta the register retrieved october 2 2020 reilly edwin d 2004 mainframe concise encyclopedia of computer science wiley pp 481 2 isbn 978 0 470 09095 4 mainframe n oxford english dictionary on line ed archived from the original on august 7 2021 ebbers mike kettner john o brien wayne ogden bill march 2011 introduction to the new mainframe z os basics pdf 3rd ed ibm p 11 retrieved march 30 2023 shirriff ken february 2025 the origin and unexpected evolution of the word mainframe beach thomas e august 29 2016 types of computers computer concepts and terminology los alamos university of new mexico archived from the original on august 3 2020 retrieved october 2 2020 national vulnerability database archived from the original on september 25 2011 retrieved september 20 2011 singh jai p morgan robert p october 1971 educational computer utilization and computer communications pdf report st louis mo washington university p 13 national aeronautics and space administration grant no y ngl 26 008 054 retrieved march 8 2022 much of the early development in the time sharing field took place on university campuses 8 notable examples are the ctss compatible time sharing system at mit which was the first general purpose time sharing system crisman patricia a ed december 31 1969 the compatible time sharing system a programmer s guide pdf the m i t computation center retrieved march 10 2022 walden david van vleck tom eds 2011 compatible time sharing system 1961 1973 fiftieth anniversary commemorative overview pdf ieee computer society retrieved february 20 2022 get the facts on ibm vs the competition the facts about ibm system z mainframe ibm archived from the original on february 11 2009 retrieved december 28 2009 kay russell june 22 2009 emulation or virtualization what s the difference computerworld retrieved august 2 2025 largest commercial database in winter corp topten survey tops one hundred terabytes press release archived from the original on may 13 2008 retrieved may 16 2008 phillips michael r may 10 2006 improvements in mainframe computer storage management practices and reporting are needed to promote effective and efficient utilization of disk resources report archived from the original on january 19 2009 between october 2001 and september 2005 the irs mainframe computer disk storage capacity increased from 79 terabytes to 168 5 terabytes 1 2 gallegos f senft s manson d gonzales c 2004 information technology control and audit 2nd ed boca raton florida auerbach publications 1 2 the henderson group october 2001 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chicago il the university of chicago press o brien j a 2002 management information systems managing information technology in the e business enterprise 5th ed new york mcgraw hill irwin external links edit wikimedia commons has media related to mainframe computers ibm z mainframes ibm mainframe resources support forum univac 9400 a mainframe from the 1960s still in use in a german computer museum lectures in the history of computing mainframes archived copy from the internet archive the history of computing project updated january 15 2006 mainframe retrieved january 27 2006 mainframes com no date retrieved january 27 2006 v t e mainframe computers australia csirac 1949 silliac 1956 israel weizac 1955 japan facom 1954 fujic 1949 sweden sara 1957 smil 1956 edb 1 1957 trask 1964 soviet union besm 6 es 2701 ru mars ru ps 2000 ps 3000 ru svs ru elbrus electronika ss vlsi ru see also soviet computer systems united states ias family 1950s illiac 1952 avidac 1953 besk 1953 ibm 701 1953 johnniac 1953 oracle 1953 ordvac 1952 weizac...