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er a was named from the runic letter called ansuz an asterisk before the rune names means that they are unattested reconstructions the 24 elder futhark runes are the following 44 rune ucs trans ipa proto germanic name meaning 45 ᚠ f ɸ f fehu cattle wealth ᚢ u u ː ūruz aurochs ᚦ þ θ ð þurisaz giant monster ᚨ a a ː ansuz god ᚱ r r raidō ride journey ᚲ k c k kauną boil ᚷ g ɡ gebō gift ᚹ w w wunjō joy ᚺ ᚻ h h hagalaz hail ᚾ n n naudiz need affliction ᛁ i i ː īsaz ice ᛃ j j jēra year good year harvest ᛇ ï æ æː 46 ɨ ː ç ji ː ī h waz yew tree ᛈ p p perþō unknown ᛉ z z algiz elk e ᛊ ᛋ s s sōwilō sun ᛏ t t tīwaz tiwaz ᛒ b b berkanan birch ᛖ e e ː ehwaz horse ᛗ m m mannaz man human ᛚ l l laguz water liquid ᛜ ŋ ŋ ingwaz ing ᛟ o o ː ōþala inheritance household ᛞ d d dagaz day notes edit the oldest known runic inscription dates to around ad 150 and is found on a comb discovered in the bog of vimose funen denmark 15 the inscription reads harja a disputed candidate for a 1st century inscription is on the meldorf fibula in southern jutland inscriptions such as wagnija niþijo and harija are supposed to represent tribe names tentatively proposed to be vangiones the nidensis and the harii tribes located in the rhineland 23 since names ending in io reflect germanic morphology representing the latin ending ius and the suffix inius was reflected by germanic inio 24 25 the question of the problematic ending ijo in masculine proto norse would be resolved by assuming roman rhineland influences while the awkward ending a of laguþewa 26 may be solved by accepting the fact that the name may indeed be west germanic 23 penzl hall 1994a assume a period of proto nordic westgermanic unity down to the 5th century and the gallehus horns inscription 27 the division between northwest germanic and proto norse is somewhat arbitrary 28 ralph elliott suggested in 1980 protection defence 47 however in 1996 he doesn t bring up either meanings and suggests sedge instead 48 none of these meanings are found in other runologic literature anglo saxon runes 5th to 11th centuries edit main article anglo saxon runes the anglo saxon futhorc the anglo saxon runes also known as the futhorc sometimes written fuþorc are an extended alphabet consisting of 29 and later 33 characters it was probably used from the 5th century onwards there are competing theories as to the origins of the anglo saxon also called anglo frisian futhorc one theory proposes that it was developed in frisia and later spread to england citation needed while another holds that scandinavians introduced runes to england where the futhorc was modified and exported to frisia citation needed some examples of futhorc inscriptions are found on the thames scramasax in the vienna codex in cotton otho b x anglo saxon rune poem and on the ruthwell cross the anglo saxon rune poem gives the following characters and names ᚠ feoh ᚢ ur ᚦ þorn ᚩ os ᚱ rad ᚳ cen ᚷ gyfu ᚹ ƿynn ᚻ hægl ᚾ nyd ᛁ is ᛄ ger ᛇ eoh ᛈ peorð ᛉ eolh ᛋ sigel ᛏ tir ᛒ beorc ᛖ eh ᛗ mann ᛚ lagu ᛝ ing ᛟ œthel ᛞ dæg ᚪ ac ᚫ æsc ᚣ yr ᛡ ior ᛠ ear extra runes attested to outside of the rune poem include ᛢ cƿeorð ᛣ calc ᚸ gar and ᛥ stan some of these additional letters have only been found in manuscripts feoh þorn and sigel stood for f θ and s in most environments but voiced to v ð and z between vowels or voiced consonants gyfu and ƿynn stood for the letters yogh and wynn which became g and w in middle english marcomannic runes 8th to 9th centuries edit marcomannic runes a runic alphabet consisting of a mixture of elder futhark with anglo saxon futhorc is recorded in a treatise called de inventione litterarum ascribed to hrabanus maurus and preserved in 8th and 9th century manuscripts mainly from the southern part of the carolingian empire alemannia bavaria the manuscript text attributes the runes to the marcomanni quos nos nordmannos vocamus marcomanni whom we call nordmanni and hence traditionally the alphabet is called marcomannic runes although it has no connection with the marcomanni and rather is an attempt by carolingian scholars to represent all letters of the latin alphabets with runic equivalents younger futhark 8th to 11th centuries edit main article younger futhark the younger futhark long branch runes and short twig runes the younger futhark also called scandinavian futhark is a reduced form of the elder futhark consisting of only 16 characters the reduction correlates with phonetic changes when proto norse evolved into old norse they are found in scandinavia and viking age settlements abroad probably in use from the 8th century onward they are divided into long branch danish and short twig swedish and norwegian runes the difference between the two versions is a matter of controversy a general opinion is that the difference between them was functional viz the long branch runes were used for documentation on stone whereas the short twig runes were in everyday use for private or official messages on wood while also featuring a runic inscription detailing the erection of a bridge for a loved one the 11th century ramsung carving is a sigurd stone that depicts the legend of sigurd medieval runes 12th to 15th centuries edit main article medieval runes medieval runes the saleby church bell sv västergötland sweden including a runic inscription from 1228 ad in the middle ages the younger futhark in scandinavia was expanded so that it once more contained one sign for each phoneme of the old norse language dotted variants of voiceless signs were introduced to denote the corresponding voiced consonants or vice versa voiceless variants of voiced consonants and several new runes also appeared for vowel sounds inscriptions in medieval scandinavian runes show a large number of variant rune forms and some letters such as s c and z often were used interchangeably 49 50 medieval runes were in use until the 15th century of the total number of norwegian runic inscriptions preserved today most are medieval runes notably more than 600 inscriptions using these runes have been discovered in bergen since the 1950s mostly on wooden sticks the so called bryggen inscriptions this indicates that runes were in common use side by side with the latin alphabet for several centuries indeed some of the medieval runic inscriptions are written in latin dalecarlian runes 16th to 19th centuries edit main article dalecarlian runes dalecarlian runes according to carl gustav werner in the isolated province of dalarna in sweden a mix of runes and latin letters developed 51 the dalecarlian runes came into use in the early 16th century and remained in some use up to the 20th century 52 some discussion remains on whether their use was an unbroken tradition throughout this period or whether people in the 19th and 20th centuries learned runes from books written on the subject the character inventory was used mainly for transcribing swedish in areas where elfdalian was predominant the dalecarlian runes attracted interest of johannes bureus and his exploration of them was one of the first ground stones of the science which later became known as runology despite the fact that bureus saw runes equal to hebrew as a sacred alphabet having magical force other swedish post reformation runes edit runes in sweden in the 19th century were also used in areas on its northern coast such as in medelpad hassela and haverö but they were very different from those used in dalarna similarly to norway runes were sometimes used in magic books in sweden 53 norwegian post reformation runes edit some examples of norwegian post reformation runes according to james knirk nb eilert støren and jonas nordby approximately two hundred runic inscriptions made by norwegian farmers in 17th 20th centuries across the whole of norway are attested but origins of this runic tradition are uncertain during the 15th and 16th centuries runes were known to many farmers in gotland and iceland and to educated people in sweden denmark and norway like bent bille jacob de la gardie ole worm arild huitfeldt and mogens gyldenstierne but the runes which were used by norwegian farmers are attested only from the 17th century mainly in hardanger telemark and south western trøndelag these runes were used for personal names and roman numerals on different objects sometimes in combination with rosemåling and also used in magic books on musical instruments and on gravestones 54 55 56 this runic tradition seems to be of newer origin and brought to the farmers by priests like gert miltzow peder alfssøn nb and hans jacob wille nb and other educated people since there is no good evidence of the use of runes in norway by farmers in the 15th and 16th centuries with very few inscriptions perhaps dating from the 16th century 54 differences from roman script edit while roman script would ultimately replace runes in most contexts it differed significantly from runic script for example on the differences between the use of anglo saxon runes and the latin script that would come to replace them runologist victoria symons says as well as being distinguished from the roman alphabet in visual appearance and letter order the fuþorc is further set apart by the fact that unlike their roman counterparts runic letters are often associated not only with sound values but also with names these names are often nouns and in almost all instances they begin with the sound value represented by the associated letter the fact that each rune represents both a sound value and a word gives this writing system a multivalent quality that further distinguishes it from roman script a roman letter simply represents its sound value when used for example for the purpose of pagination such letters can assume added significance but this is localised to the context of an individual manuscript runic letters on the other hand are inherently multivalent they can and often do represent several different kinds of information simultaneously this aspect of runic letters is one that is frequently employed and exploited by writers and scribes who include them in their manuscripts 57 ideographic runes edit main article ideographic rune the younger futhark inscription ög43 with the elder futhark rune ᛞ early old norse dagʀ day used as an ideographic rune for the writer s name in addition to their historic use as letters runes were also used to represent their names as ideographs such instances are sometimes referred to by way of the modern german loanword begriffsrunen meaning concept runes singular begriffsrune but the descriptive term ideographic runes is also used 58 such were used throughout the 1st millennium and into the medieval period utilized by both norse and anglo saxon runic writers runology edit main article runology the modern study of runes was initiated during the renaissance by johannes bureus 1568 1652 bureus viewed runes as holy or magical in a kabbalistic sense 59 the study of runes was continued by olof rudbeck sr 1630 1702 and presented in his collection atlantica anders celsius 1701 1744 further extended the science of runes and travelled around the whole of sweden to examine the runstenar from the golden age of philology in the 19th century runology formed a specialized branch of germanic linguistics body of inscriptions edit main article runic inscriptions the vimose comb from the island of funen denmark features the earliest known runic inscription ad 150 to 200 and simply reads ᚺᚨᚱᛃᚨ harja a male name 60 the largest group of surviving runic inscription are viking age younger futhark runestones commonly found in denmark and sweden 61 another large group are medieval runes most commonly found on small objects often wooden sticks the largest concentration of runic inscriptions are the bryggen inscriptions found in bergen more than 650 in total elder futhark inscriptions number around 350 about 260 of which are from scandinavia of which about half are on bracteates anglo saxon futhorc inscriptions number around 100 items modern use edit main article modern runic writing runic script on an 1886 gravestone in parkend england runic alphabets have seen numerous uses since the 18th century viking revival in scandinavian romantic nationalism gothicismus and germanic occultism in the 19th century and in the context of the fantasy genre and of modern germanic paganism in the 20th century citation needed esotericism edit germanic mysticism edit further information armanen runes wiligut runes and runengymnastik from 1933 the schutzstaffel unit insignia comprised two sig runes which derive from the armanen futhark invented in the 19th century by völkisch author guido von list the pioneer of the armanist branch of ariosophy and one of the more important figures in esotericism in germany and austria in the late 19th and early 20th century was the austrian occultist mysticist and völkisch author guido von list in 1908 he published in das geheimnis der runen the secret of the runes a set of eighteen so called armanen runes based on the younger futhark and runes of list s own introduction which allegedly were revealed to him in a state of temporary blindness after cataract operations on both eyes in 1902 citation needed nazism edit further information ss runes the use of runes in germanic mysticism notably list s armanen runes and the derived wiligut runes by karl maria wiligut played a certain role in nazi symbolism the fascination with runic symbolism was mostly limited to heinrich himmler and not shared by the other members of the nazi top echelon consequently runes appear mostly in insignia associated with the schutzstaffel ss the paramilitary organization led by himmler wiligut is credited with designing the ss ehrenring which displays a number of wiligut runes citation needed more recently neo nazis in australia have been using futhark runes to signal their beliefs in particular in the wake of the outlawing of the major group national socialist network ahead of new hate speech laws passed in january 2026 62 modern paganism and esotericism edit runes are popular in new age esotericism modern germanic paganism and to a lesser extent in other forms of modern paganism various systems of runic divination have been published since the 1980s notably by ralph blum 1982 stephen flowers 1984 onward stephan grundy 1990 and nigel pennick 1995 citation needed the uthark theory originally was proposed as a scholarly hypothesis by sigurd agrell in 1932 in 2002 swedish esotericist thomas karlsson popularized this uthark runic row which he refers to as the night side of the runes in the context of modern occultism citation needed bluetooth edit bluetooth logo with the initials of harald bluetooth the bluetooth logo is a bind rune a ligature of two runes of the younger futhark ᚼ hagall and ᛒ bjarkan equivalent to the letters h and b that are the initials of harald bluetooth who was a king of denmark from the viking age 63 fantasy literature edit see also cirth runes from the hobbit runes play an important rol...