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property social reproduction theory of history class struggle primitive accumulation proletarian revolution world revolution schools of thought foundational classical marxism orthodox marxism revisionist marxism primary branches bukharinism deng xiaoping theory left communism leninism marxism leninism maoism titoism trotskyism western marxism frankfurt school humanist praxis school structural libertarian marxism autonomism communization operaismo situationism academic and post 1968 schools analytical budapest school dependency theory ecological feminist neo open new marx reading political post regulation school subaltern studies value criticism world systems theory other tendencies austrian centrist marxism black radical tradition de leonism eurocommunism liberal nkrumaism fields of study aesthetics archaeology anthropology criminology cultural analysis cultural studies film theory geography historiography international relations literary criticism mathematics religion sociology theoretical works foundational texts economic and philosophic manuscripts of 1844 theses on feuerbach the german ideology the poverty of philosophy wage labour and capital the communist manifesto the eighteenth brumaire of louis bonaparte grundrisse a contribution to the critique of political economy value price and profit das kapital the civil war in france critique of the gotha programme anti dühring the origin of the family private property and the state ludwig feuerbach and the end of classical german philosophy early 20th century what is to be done the accumulation of capital imperialism the highest stage of capitalism terrorism and communism the state and revolution essays on marx s theory of value history and class consciousness prison notebooks the black jacobins mid 20th century and the new left on practice dialectic of enlightenment labor and monopoly capital monopoly capital the wretched of the earth reading capital the society of the spectacle pedagogy of the oppressed ideology and ideological state apparatuses how europe underdeveloped africa anti oedipus social justice and the city discipline and punish late 20th and 21st century women race and class marxism and the oppression of women imagined communities hegemony and socialist strategy the sublime object of ideology gender trouble time labor and social domination the age of extremes the origin of capitalism marx s ecology empire caliban and the witch capitalist realism capital in the anthropocene people classical marx engels orthodox bernstein bukharin connolly kautsky kollontai lafargue lenin liebknecht luxemburg morris plekhanov trotsky zetkin marxist leninists bettelheim davis ghandy haywood parenti roy trường western marxists adorno althusser benjamin bloch gramsci habermas horkheimer korsch lefebvre lukács marcuse poulantzas sartre austromarxists adler bauer hilferding left communists bordiga damen gorter mattick pannekoek economists braverman grossman kalecki mandel marini rubin sweezy uno wolff historians anderson deutscher hobsbawm losurdo thompson wood revolutionary leaders castro guevara hampton ho kim malaka mao newton sankara stalin zachariadis anti colonial and postcolonial theorists amin cabral davis du bois fanon james jones mariátegui mohanty nkrumah rodney spivak later 20th and 21st century badiou balibar baudrillard bensaïd butler cohen dauvé debord deleuze and guattari derrida eagleton federici foster foucault fraser hall harvey heinrich jameson laclau and mouffe löwy miliband negri postone rancière saito tronti vogel wallerstein williams wright žižek journals antipode capital class capitalism nature socialism critique journal of socialist theory historical materialism mediations monthly review new left review race class rethinking marxism science society socialist register related topics critiques criticism of marxism concepts conflict theory economic determinism historical determinism economism intercommunalism postcolonialism scientific socialism vanguardism vulgar marxism movements communism history left wing politics new old ultra municipalism socialism authoritarian democratic eco market reformist revolutionary social democracy utopian practices collectivization nationalization planned economy worker cooperative workers council communism portal socialism portal politics portal v t e metabolic rift is a theory of ecological crisis tendencies under the capitalist mode of production that sociologist john bellamy foster ascribes to karl marx quoting marx foster defines this as the irreparable rift in the interdependent process of social metabolism 1 949 starting with his book marx s ecology materialism and nature foster argues that marx theorized a rupture in the metabolic interaction between humanity and the rest of nature emanating from capitalist agricultural production and the growing division between town and country foster rather than marx coined the term metabolic rift foster argues the theory develops from marx s earlier work in the economic and philosophical manuscripts on species being and the relationship between humans and nature metabolism is marx s mature analysis of the alienation of nature 2 ix and presents a more solid and scientific way in which to depict the complex dynamic interchange between human beings and nature resulting from human labor 3 as opposed to those who have attributed to marx a disregard for nature and responsibility for the environmental problems of the soviet union and other purportedly communist states foster sees in the theory of metabolic rift evidence of marx s ecological perspective the theory of metabolic rift enabl ed marx to develop a critique of environmental degradation that anticipated much of present day ecological thought 2 142 including questions of sustainability as well as the limits of agricultural production using concentrated animal feeding operations 4 researchers building on the original marxist concept have developed other similar terms like carbon rift origins edit soil exhaustion and agricultural revolutions edit marx s writings on metabolism were developed during england s second agricultural revolution 1815 1880 a period which was characterized by the development of soil chemistry and the growth of the use of chemical fertilizer 2 148 the depletion of soil fertility or soil exhaustion had become a key concern for capitalist society and demand for fertilizer was such that britain and other powers initiated explicit policies for the importation of bone and guano including raiding of napoleonic battlefields 3 375 and catacombs 2 150 british monopolization of peruvian guano supplies 3 377 and in the united states the imperial annexation of any islands thought to be rich in guano through the guano islands act 1856 2 151 3 377 4 liebig and soil science edit foster argues that marx s theory drew heavily on contemporary advances in agricultural chemistry unknown to earlier classical economists such as ricardo and malthus for them different levels of soil fertility and thus rent was attributed almost entirely to the natural or absolute productivity of the soil 3 374 with improvement or degradation playing only a minor role german agricultural chemist justus von liebig in his organic chemistry in its applications to agriculture and physiology 1840 presented the first convincing explanation of the role of soil nutrients in the growth of plants 3 376 in 1842 liebig expanded the use of the term metabolism stoffwechsel from referring to material exchanges in the body up to the biochemical processes of natural systems 3 374 5 foster argues that liebig s work became more critical of capitalist agriculture as time went on from the standpoint of nutrient cycling the socio economic relationship between rural and urban areas was self evidently contradictory hindering the possibility of sustainability if it were practicable to collect with the least loss all the solid and fluid excrements of the inhabitants of the town and return to each farmer the portion arising from produce originally supplied by him to the town the productiveness of the land might be maintained almost unimpaired for ages to come and the existing store of mineral elements in every fertile field would be amply sufficient for the wants of increasing populations 6 261 human labor and nature edit marx rooted his theory of social ecological metabolism in liebig s analysis but connected it to his understanding of the labor process 3 380 marx understood that throughout history it was through labor that humans appropriated nature to satisfy their needs 2 141 thus the metabolism or interaction of society with nature is a universal and perpetual condition 7 145 in capital marx integrated his materialist conception of nature with his materialist conception of history 2 141 fertility marx argued was not a natural quality of the soil but was rather bound up with the social relations of the time by conceptualizing the complex interdependent processes of material exchange and regulatory actions that link human society with non human nature as metabolic relations marx allowed these processes to be both nature imposed conditions and subject to human agency 3 381 a dynamic largely missed according to foster by the reduction of ecological questions to issues of value 2 11 writers since marx edit the central contribution of the metabolic rift perspective is to locate socio ecological contradictions internal to the development of capitalism later socialists expanded upon marx s ideas including nikolai bukharin in historical materialism 1921 and karl kautsky in the agrarian question 1899 which developed questions of the exploitation of the countryside by the town and the fertilizer treadmill that resulted from metabolic rift 2 239 contemporary eco socialist theorists aside from foster have also explored these directions including james o connor who sees capitalist undervaluing of nature as leading to economic crisis what he refers to as the second contradiction of capitalism 8 scholars from a variety of disciplines have drawn on marx s metabolic approach and the concept of metabolic rift in analyzing the relation of society to the rest of nature 9 with increasing amounts of carbon dioxide being released into the environment from capitalist production the theory of a carbon rift has also emerged 10 the metabolic rift is characterized in different ways by historical materialists for jason w moore the distinction between social and natural systems is empirically false and theoretically arbitrary following a different reading of marx moore views metabolisms as relations of human and extra human natures in this view capitalism s metabolic rift unfolds through the town country division of labor itself a bundle of relations between humans and the rest of nature moore sees it as constitutive of the endless accumulation of capital 11 moore s perspective although also rooted in historical materialism produces a widely divergent view from that of foster and others about what makes ecological crisis and how it relates to capital accumulation nine months after foster s groundbreaking article appeared moore argued that the origins of the metabolic rift were not found in the 19th century but in the rise of capitalism during the long 16th century 12 the metabolic rift was not a consequence of industrial agriculture but capitalist relations pivoting on the law of value moore consequently focuses attention on the grand movements of primitive accumulation colonialism and the globalization of town country relations that characterized early modern capitalism there were in this view not one but many metabolic rifts every great phase of capitalist development organized nature in new ways each one with its own metabolic rift in place of agricultural revolutions moore emphasizes recurrent agro ecological revolutions assigned the historical task of providing cheap food and cheap labor in the history of capitalism an interpretation that extends the analysis to the food crises of the early 21st century 13 14 environmental contradiction under capitalism edit town and country edit up until the 16th or 17th century cities metabolic dependency upon surrounding countryside for resources etc coupled with the technological limitations to production and extraction prevented extensive urbanization early urban centers were bioregionally defined and had relatively light footprints recycling city nightsoils back into the surrounding areas 7 410 411 however with the rise of capitalism cities expanded in size and population large scale industry required factories raw material workers and large amounts of food as urban economic security was dependent upon its metabolic support system 7 411 cities now looked further afield for their resource and waste flows as spatial barriers were broken down capitalist society violated what were previously nature imposed conditions of sustainability 2 153 156 with trade and expansion food and fiber were shipped longer distances the nutrients of the soil were sent to cities in the form of agricultural produce but these same nutrients in the form of human and animal waste were not returned to the land thus there was a one way movement a robbing of the soil in order to maintain the socio economic reproduction of society 2 153 156 marx thus linked the crisis of pollution in cities with the crisis of soil depletion the rift was a result of the antagonistic separation of town and country and the social ecological relations of production created by capitalism were ultimately unsustainable 12 from capital volume 1 on large scale industry and agriculture capitalist production collects the population together in great centres and causes the urban population to achieve an ever growing preponderance this has two results on the one hand it concentrates the historical motive force of society on the other hand it disturbs the metabolic interaction between man and the earth i e it prevents the return to the soil of its constituent elements consumed by man in the form of food and clothing hence it hinders the operation of the eternal natural condition for the lasting fertility of the soil but by destroying the circumstances surrounding that metabolism it compels its systematic restoration as a regulative law of social production and in a form adequate to the full development of the human race all progress in capitalist agriculture is a progress in the art not only of robbing the worker but of robbing the soil all progress in increasing the fertility of the soil for a given time is a progress toward ruining the more long lasting sources of that fertility capitalist production therefore only develops the techniques and the degree of combination of the social process of production by simultaneously undermining the original sources of all wealth the soil and the worker emphasis added 15 637 638 future socialist society edit the concept of metabolic rift captures the material estrangement ...