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october 1968 edit national strike council cnh edit main article national strike council strike council members cabeza de vaca and perelló at a press conference mexico 1968 following the protest march led by unam s rector students from several institutions formed the national strike council consejo nacional de huelga or cnh which organized all subsequent protests against the díaz ordaz government 17 page needed the cnh was a democratic delegation of students from 70 universities and preparatory schools in mexico it coordinated protests to promote social educational and political reforms 1 at its apex the cnh had 240 student delegates and made all decisions by majority vote had equal representation by female students and reduced animosity among rival institutions 1 raúl álvarez garín sócrates campos lemus marcelino perelló and gilberto guevara niebla served as the four de facto leaders of the cnh 19 as the world focused on mexico city for the olympics the cnh leaders sought to gain peaceful progress for festering political and social grievances sergio zermeño has argued that the students were united by a desire for democracy but their understanding of what democracy meant varied widely 8 the movement began to gain support from students outside the capital and from other segments of society which continued to build until that october students formed brigadas brigades groups of six or more students who distributed leaflets about the issues in the streets markets and most often on public buses 1 these organizations the smallest units of the cnh decided the scope and issues which the student movement would take up these included both rural and urban concerns 1 the brigadistas boarded buses to speak to the passengers about the government s corruption and repression while others distributed leaflets and collected donations 1 eventually the passengers and bus drivers began to sympathize with the students demands for democracy and justice and the students collected increasing amounts of money 1 but the aggressive militancy among the students began to disillusion some bus drivers about the students motives and they suspected the youths of seeking power for its own sake 19 protests at unam edit science students contingent 13 august 1968 the 27 august student demonstration on juárez avenue on 9 september barros sierra issued a statement to the students and teachers to return to class as our institutional demands have been essentially satisfied by the recent annual message by the citizen president of the republic 19 the cnh issued a paid announcement in the newspaper el día for the silent march on 13 september it invited all workers farmers teachers students and the general public to participate in the march 19 the cnh emphasized that it had no connection with the twentieth olympic games or with the national holidays commemorating mexico s independence and that this committee has no intention of interfering with them in any way 19 the announcement reiterated the list of six demands from the cnh with the opening of the olympics approaching díaz ordaz was determined to stop these demonstrations in september he ordered the army to occupy the unam campus they took the campus without firing a bullet but beat and arrested students indiscriminately barros sierra resigned in protest on 23 september silence march edit the silence march was a silent demonstration that took place on 13 september meant to prove that the movement was not a series of riots but had discipline and self control 19 september occupation of ipn the polytechnic edit students began to prepare for defensive operations in other institutions they put on a much stronger resistance when the police and the army tried to occupy the polytechnic campuses of zacatenco and santo tomas the battle lasted from 17 00 hours on 23 september to the early hours of 24 september 19 the physician justo igor de león loyola wrote in his book la noche de santo tomás saint thomas night today i have seen bloodier fights unequal battles both sides are armed but what a difference in the weapons 22 caliber handguns against m 1 military rifles bazookas against molotov cocktails 20 21 the polytechnic students held their campuses against the army for more than twelve hours which aroused strong opposition by the government the french journal l express stated that 15 people died in the battles and that more than one thousand bullets were fired the government reported three dead and 45 injured people 21 students from the santo tomás campus who were arrested in the occupations later said that they had been concentrated for defense in the entry lobbies the military shot students at random and some of their friends did not survive citation needed tlatelolco massacre edit main article tlatelolco massacre the movement was permanently repressed by the government and finally tried to annihilate on the tlatelolco massacre on 2 october 1968 the massacre was planned and executed under the code name operation galeana by the paramilitary group called batallón olimpia the federal security direction dfs then the so called secret police and the mexican army simulating a shooting in the plaza de las tres culturas after the conclusion of a concentration of the cnh one year after in 1969 president gustavo díaz ordaz also a cia informant assumed responsibility for the massacre on 2 october 1968 at 5 pm in the plaza de las tres culturas in tlatelolco a neighborhood of mexico city almost 10 thousand men women and children stood waiting for a meeting to start however when the leaders of the several student organizations and movements arrived policemen and the military sent by president díaz ordaz and commanded by luis echeverria decided to dissolve the meeting a student claims that at about 6 10 a helicopter dropped three flares over the plaza quickly followed by the first gunshots students were kidnapped tortured and killed by the government 22 23 government strategies to counter the movement edit during the presidency of vicente fox 2000 2006 his administration created a commission to investigate the mexican government s activities during the so called dirty war the report informe documenta sobre 18 años de guerra sucia en méxico written by the fiscal especial responsabilidad del estado en cientos de asesinatos y desapariciones was digitally published in draft form 24 the report documents the multi pronged strategy by president gustavo díaz ordaz and his minister of the interior luis echeverría to contain control and suppress the student protests government agents infiltrated universities and schools to gain information about student organizations and leaders their action plans and were at times agents provocateurs promoting acts that could then be used as reasons for government violence the government also co opted organizations that could act as mediators silencing dissent and controlling their functions members of police and other organized government units posed as students inciting them to act criminally then hiding their identity in prosecutions skewing the judicial system outright government force was also used the government created paramilitary organizations to destroy their opponents perpetrating human rights violations the government used the mexican army as the last resort 24 the tlatelolco massacre is the most prominent example of the government s repression aftermath of the 1968 movement edit this social movement brought unavoidable consequences which permanently changed the future of mexico 10 but these political and social changes were not immediate as the repression continued with the corpus christi massacre in 1971 the major change caused by this movement came at a political level the citizens had the opportunity to live a new democracy in which their opinion could actually bring change in society people no longer completely trusted the government and would no longer live completely under the conscious control of their government nor tolerate it anymore 22 although they were not completely free octavio paz resigned from his post as mexican ambassador to india as an act of protest against the government s harsh repression of the student movements however there were also some older intellectuals who were in favor of the government like agustín yañez 9 human rights violations edit twenty two years after the government of mexico established a special prosecutor for the social and political movements of the past the fiscalía especial para movimientos sociales y políticos del pasado femossp 25 after the reopening of the case it was concluded that the movement marked an inflection in the political times of mexico and was independent rebellious and close to civil resistance the latter officially recognizing the main argument of gustavo díaz ordaz s official version that the reason behind the movement was the aim to install a communist regime as false 25 with this argument the mexican government justified its strategy to combat the movement and characterizing it as a foreign risk with terrorists pretensions 25 in that order the mexican government planned and ordered an extermination campaign during the months of the movement and after based on a massive strategy of human rights violations as false imprisonments abuses torture persecution espionage criminalization also crimes as forced disappearances homicides and extrajudicial killings 25 all throughout this period the mexican government had an active role in advisory presence and intelligence operations of the central intelligence agency of the united states 25 under the undercovered operation litempo including having díaz ordaz and other high representatives of the mexican government as informants 26 the number of victims disappeared and imprisoned is still imprecise 25 some victims of the tlatelolco massacre tried to sue the 2 october killings on national and international courts as a crime against humanity and a genocide affirmation that was sustained by femospp but rejected by its courts some political scientists historians and intellectuals like carlos monsiváis agreed in pointing out that this movement and its conclusion incited a permanent and more active critical and oppositional attitude of civil society mainly in public universities as well it provoked the radicalization of some survivor activists who opted for clandestine action and formed urban and rural guerrillas which were repressed in the so called dirty war during the 1970s citation needed references edit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 jesús vargas valdez student movement of 1968 in encyclopedia of mexico chicago fitzroy dearborn 1997 pages 1379 1382 soto laveaga unruly doctors ubc latin american studies 10 november 2011 retrieved 12 november 2025 enrique krauze mexico biography of power new york harpercollins 1997 680 685 el movimiento estudiantil de 1968 the student movement of 1968 pdf in spanish archived from the original pdf on 25 august 2017 quoted in krauze mexico biography of power p 690 trufelman avery 28 june 2017 mexico 68 99 invisible retrieved 14 july 2017 mexican students protest for greater democracy 1968 global nonviolent action database 1 2 la democracia punto de unión universal entre quienes animamos ese movimiento se vuelve un espejismo cuando nos acercamos tratando de precisar su contenido see sergio zermeño méxico una democracia utópica el movimiento estudiantil del 68 5th edition mexico city siglo veitiuno 1985 1 1 2 3 ponitowska elena september 1998 son cuerpos señor equis pp 3 8 1 2 xypolia ilia 2013 gokay bulent xypolia ilia eds turmoils and economic miracles turkey 13 and mexico 68 pdf keele uk keele european research centre p 33 archived from the original pdf on 21 september 2013 retrieved 19 december 2013 enrique krauze mexico biography of power p 694 jesús vargas valdez student movement of 1968 in encyclopedia of mexico history society culture vol 2 chicago fitzroy dearborn publishers 1997 p 1379 earl shorris the life and times of mexico new york w w norton company 2004 poniatowska elena 1991 krauze mexico biography of power p 695 krauze mexico biography of power p 696 1 2 3 hodges donald c gandy ross 2001 mexico the end of the revolution westport connecticut praeger isbn 0275973336 kriza elisa 2018 anti communism communism and anti interventionism in narratives surrounding the student massacre on tlatelolco square mexico 1968 bulletin of latin american research early view may 2018 82 96 doi 10 1111 blar 12783 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 poniatowska elena massacre in mexico trans helen r lane columbia university of missouri press 1991 justo igor de león loyola la noche de santo tomás ediciones de cultura popular mexico 1988 1 2 juan arvizu arrioja méxico 68 toman casco de santo tomás tras 12 horas de combate el universal mexico 22 september 2008 1 2 gonzález víctor m june 2003 méxico 1968 no se olvida instituto tecnológico y de estudios superiores de occidente archived from the original on 3 november 2007 retrieved 7 november 2007 youtube footage in which flare drop is visible footage was recorded secretly by the government on the day of the massacre see radiodiaries org 1 2 informe documenta sobre 18 años de guerra sucia en méxico fiscal especial responsabilidad del estado en cientos de asesinatos y desapariciones https nsarchive2 gwu edu nsaebb nsaebb180 030_movimiento 20de 201968 pdf accessed 17 march 2019 1 2 3 4 5 6 sergio aguayo 1999 1968 los archivos de la violencia 1968 the violence files grijalbo reforma isbn 9789700510262 morley jefferson 18 october 2006 litempo los ojos de la cia en tlatelolco litempo the cia s eyes on tlatelolco national security archive further reading edit pensado jaime m and enrique c ochoa eds méxico beyond 1968 revolutionaries radicals and repression during the global sixties and subversive seventies tucson university of arizona press 2018 isbn 978 0 8165 3842 3 villanueva carla irina for the liberation of exploited youth campesino students the fecsm and mexican student politics in the 1960s in pensado and ochoa mexico beyond 1968 pp 134 152 v t e protests of 1968 movements 1968 1969 japanese university protests zenkyōtō 1968 movement in italy 1968 movement in pakistan civil rights movement anti nuclear movement black consciousness movement black power movement black power revolution chicano movement cultural revolution gay liberation hippie movement human rights movement in the soviet union mexican movement of 1968 movement of 22 march northern ireland civil rights movement opposition to united states involvement in the vietnam war red power movement sexual revolution west german student movement women s liberation movement events 1968 democratic national convention protests the whole world is watching 1968 polish political crisis 1968 protests in egypt 1968 student demonstrations in yugoslavia 1968 miami riot 1968 red square demonstration 1968 uprising in senegal båstad riots battle of valle giulia ceaușescu s speech of 21 august 1968 central park be ins co...