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16 villa attacked the united states and pershing was dispatched in a failed attempt to capture him u s president taft left the decision of whether to recognize the new government up to the incoming president woodrow wilson despite the urging of american ambassador henry lane wilson who had played a key role in the coup d état president wilson not only declined to recognize huerta s government but first supplanted the ambassador by sending his personal representative john lind a progressive who sympathized with the mexican revolutionaries and the president recalled ambassador wilson the united states lifted the arms embargo imposed by taft in order to supply weapons to the landlocked rebels while under the complete embargo huerta had still been able to receive shipments from the british by sea wilson urged european powers to not recognize huerta s government and attempted to persuade huerta to call prompt elections and not present himself as a candidate 93 the united states offered mexico a loan on the condition that huerta accept the proposal he refused lind clearly threatened a military intervention in case the demands were not met 93 oil portrait of venustiano carranza governor of coahuila in the summer of 1913 mexican conservatives who had supported huerta sought a constitutionally elected civilian alternative to huerta brought together in a body called the national unifying junta 94 political parties proliferated in this period a sign that democracy had taken hold and there were 26 by the time of the october congressional elections from huerta s point of view the fragmentation of the conservative political landscape strengthened his own position for the country s conservative elite there was a growing disillusionment with huerta and disgust at his strong arm methods 95 huerta closed the legislature on 26 october 1913 having the army surround its building and arresting congressmen perceived to be hostile to his regime despite that congressional elections went ahead but given that congress was dissolved and some members were in jail opposition candidates fervor disappeared the sham election brought home to woodrow wilson s administration the fatuity of relying on elections to demonstrate genuine democracy 96 the october 1913 elections were the end of any pretension to constitutional rule in mexico with civilian political activity banned 97 prominent catholics were arrested and catholic newspapers were suppressed 64 huerta militarized mexico to a greater extent than it already was when huerta seized power in 1913 the army had on the books approximately 50 000 men but huerta mandated the number rise to 150 000 then 200 000 and finally in spring 1914 250 000 64 raising that number of men in so short a time would not occur with volunteers and the army resorted to the leva forced conscription the revolutionary forces had no problem with voluntary recruitment 98 most mexican men avoided government conscription at all costs and the ones dragooned into the forces were sent to areas far away from home and were reluctant to fight conscripts deserted mutinied and attacked and murdered their officers 99 u s troops enter veracruz in april 1914 both huerta and carranza opposed the u s intervention in april 1914 american opposition to huerta culminated in the seizure and occupation of the port of veracruz by u s marines and sailors initially intended to prevent a german merchant vessel from delivering a shipment of arms to the huerta regime the muddled operation evolved into a seven month stalemate resulting in the death of 193 mexican soldiers 19 american servicemen and an unknown number of civilians the german ship landed its cargo largely american made rifles in a deal brokered by american businessmen at a different port american forces eventually left veracruz in the hands of the carrancistas but with lasting damage to u s mexican relations 100 101 in mexico s south zapata took chilpancingo guerrero in mid march he followed this soon afterward with the capture of the pacific coast port of acapulco iguala taxco and buenavista de cuellar he confronted the federal garrisons in morelos the majority of which defected to him with their weapons finally he moved against the capital by sending his subordinates into mexico state 102 constitutionalist forces made major gains against the federal army in early 1914 pancho villa had moved against the federal army in the border town of ojinaga chihuahua sending the federal soldiers fleeing to fort bliss in the u s state of new mexico in mid march he took torreón a well defended railway hub city after bitter fighting for the hills surrounding torreón and later point blank bombardment on april 3 villa s troops entered the devastated city the federal army made a last stand at san pedro de las colonias only to be undone by squabbling between the two commanding officers general velasco and general maas over who had the higher rank as of mid april mexico city sat undefended before constitutionalist forces under villa 102 obregón moved south from sonora along the pacific coast when his way was blocked by federal gunboats obregón attacked these boats with an airplane an early use of an airplane for military purposes in early july he defeated federal troops at orendain jalisco leaving 8 000 federals dead and capturing a large trove of armaments he was now in a position to arrive at mexico city ahead of villa who was diverted by orders from carranza to take saltillo 102 carranza the civilian first chief and villa the bold and successful commander of the division of the north were on the verge of splitting obregón the other highly successful constitutionalist general sought to keep the northern coalition intact the federal army s defeats caused huerta s position to continue to deteriorate and in mid july 1914 he stepped down and fled to the gulf coast port of puerto méxico seeking to get himself and his family out of mexico rather than face the fate of madero he turned to the german government which had generally supported his presidency the germans were not eager to allow him to be transported into exile on one of their ships but relented huerta carried roughly half a million marks in gold with him as well as paper currency and checks 103 in exile huerta sought to return to mexico via the united states american authorities arrested him and he was imprisoned in fort bliss texas he died in january 1916 six months after going into exile 104 huerta s resignation marked the end of an era the federal army a spectacularly ineffective fighting force against the revolutionaries ceased to exist 105 the revolutionary factions that had united in opposition to huerta s regime now faced a new political landscape with the counter revolutionaries decisively defeated the revolutionary armies now contended for power and a new era of civil war began after an attempt at an agreement among the winners at a convention of aguascalientes meeting of the winners then civil war 1914 1915 edit see also pact of torreon convention of aguascalientes álvaro obregón pancho villa emiliano zapata and battle of celaya map of zones of control during the mexico revolution as of early 1915 before obregón defeated villa with huerta s ouster in july 1914 and the dissolution of the federal army in august the revolutionary factions agreed to meet and make a last ditch effort to avert more intense warfare than that which unseated huerta 106 commander of the division of the north pancho villa and the division of the northeast pablo gonzález had drawn up the pact of torreón in early july pushing for a more radical agenda than carranza s plan of guadalupe it also called for a meeting of revolutionary generals to decide mexico s political future carranza called for a meeting in october 1914 in mexico city which he now controlled with obregón but other revolutionaries opposed to carranza s influence successfully moved the venue to aguascalientes the convention of aguascalientes did not in fact reconcile the various victorious factions in the mexican revolution the break between carranza and villa became definitive during the convention carranza spurned it and villa effectively hijacked it mexico s lesser caudillos were forced to choose between those two forces 107 it was a brief pause in revolutionary violence before another all out period of civil war ensued pancho villa and emiliano zapata carranza had expected to be confirmed in his position as first chief of revolutionary forces but his supporters lost control of the proceedings 108 opposition to carranza was strongest in areas where there were popular and fierce demands for reform particularly in chihuahua where villa was powerful and in morelos where zapata held sway 109 the convention of aguascalientes brought that opposition out in an open forum the revolutionary generals of the convention called on carranza to resign executive power although he agreed to do so he laid out conditions for it he would resign if both pancho villa and emiliano zapata his main rivals for power would resign and go into exile and that there should be a so called pre constitutionalist government that would take charge of carrying out the social and political reforms the country needs before a fully constitutional government is re established 110 pancho villa and emiliano zapata at the national palace in mexico city on december 6 1914 villa is seated in the presidential chair conversing with zapata tomás urbina otilio montaño and rodolfo fierro are also pictured rather than first chief carranza being named president of mexico at the convention general eulalio gutiérrez was chosen for a term of 20 days the convention declared carranza in rebellion against it civil war resumed this time between revolutionary armies that had fought in a united cause to oust huerta in 1913 1914 during the convention constitutionalist general álvaro obregón had attempted to be a moderating force and had been the one to convey the convention s call for carranza to resign the lines were now drawn when the convention forces declared carranza in rebellion against it obregón supported carranza rather than villa and zapata villa and zapata went into a loose alliance their forces moved separately on mexico city and took it when carranza s forces evacuated it in december 1914 for veracruz the famous picture of zapata and villa in the national palace with villa sitting in the presidential chair is a classic image of the revolution villa is reported to have said to zapata that the presidential chair is too big for us 108 in practice the alliance between villa and zapata as the army of the convention did not function beyond this initial victory against the constitutionalists villa and zapata left the capital with zapata returning to his southern stronghold in morelos where he continued to engage in warfare under the plan of ayala 108 lacking a firm center of power and leadership the convention government was plagued by instability villa was the real power emerging from the convention and he prepared to strengthen his position by winning a decisive victory against the constitutionalist army villa had a well earned reputation as a fierce and successful general and the combination of forces arrayed against carranza by villa other northern generals and zapata was larger than the constitutionalist army so it was not at all clear that carranza s faction would prevail he did have the advantage of the loyalty of general álvaro obregón despite obregón s moderating actions at the convention of aguascalientes even trying to persuade carranza to resign his position he ultimately sided with carranza 111 another advantage of carranza s position was the constitutionalists control of veracruz even though the united states still occupied it the united states had concluded that both villa and zapata were too radical and hostile to its interests and sided with the moderate carranza in the factional fighting 112 the u s timed its exit from veracruz brokered at the niagara falls peace conference to benefit carranza and allowed munitions to flow to the constitutionalists the u s granted carranza s government diplomatic recognition in october 1915 the rival armies of villa and obregón clashed in april 1915 in the battle of celaya which lasted from the sixth to the 15th the frontal cavalry charges of villa s forces were met by the shrewd modern military tactics of obregón the victory of the constitutionalists was complete and carranza emerged as the political leader of mexico with a victorious army to keep him in that position villa retreated north carranza and the constitutionalists consolidated their position as the winning faction with zapata remaining a threat until his assassination in 1919 villa also remained a threat to the constitutionalists complicating their relationship with the united states when elements of villa s forces raided columbus new mexico in march 1916 prompting the u s to launch a punitive expedition into mexico in an unsuccessful attempt to capture him constitutionalists in power under carranza 1915 1920 edit main article venustiano carranza mexico at the end of 1915 with the constitutionalists holding the most territory carranza s 1913 plan of guadalupe was narrowly political designed to unite the anti huerta forces in the north but once huerta was ousted the federal army dissolved and former constitutionalist pancho villa defeated carranza sought to consolidate his position the constitutionalists retook mexico city which had been held by the zapatistas and held it permanently he did not take the title of provisional or interim president of mexico since in doing so he would have been ineligible to become the constitutional president until the promulgation of the 1917 constitution his was framed as the pre constitutional government in october 1915 the u s recognized carranza s government as the de facto ruling power following obregón s victories this gave carranza s constitutionalists legitimacy internationally and access to the legal flow of arms from the u s the carranza government still had active opponents including villa who retreated north 113 zapata remained active in the south even though he was losing support zapata remained a threat to the carranza regime until his assassination by order of carranza on 10 april 1919 114 disorder and violence in the countryside was largely due to anti carranza forces but banditry as well as military and police misconduct contributed to the unsettled situation the government s inability to keep order gave an opening to supporters of the old order headed by félix díaz nephew of former president porfirio diaz some 36 generals of the dissolved federal army stood with díaz the constitutionalist army was renamed the mexican national army and carranza sent some of its most able generals to eliminate threats in morelos he sent general pablo gonzález to fight zapata s liberating army of the south 115 morelos...