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lue of an outcome based on how positively or negatively each individual is affected by it for example if a government implements a new policy that affects some people positively and others negatively theories of value aggregation can be used to determine whether the overall value of the policy is positive or negative axiological utilitarianism accepts the additivity principle saying that the total value is simply the sum of all individual values 102 axiological egalitarians are not only interested in the sum total of value but also in how the values are distributed they argue that an outcome with a balanced advantage distribution is better than an outcome where some benefit a lot while others benefit little even if the two outcomes have the same sum total 103 axiological prioritarians are particularly concerned with the benefits of individuals who are worse off they say that providing advantages to people in need has more value than providing the same advantages to others 103 another debate addresses the meaning of life investigating whether life or existence as a whole has a higher meaning or purpose 104 naturalist views argue that the meaning of life is found within the physical world either as objective values that are true for everyone or as subjective values that vary according to individual preferences suggested fields where humans find meaning include exercising freedom committing oneself to a cause practicing altruism engaging in positive social relationships or pursuing personal happiness 105 supernaturalists by contrast propose that meaning lies beyond the natural world for example various religions teach that god created the world for a higher purpose imbuing existence with meaning a related outlook argues that immortal souls serve as sources of meaning by being connected to a transcendent reality and evolving spiritually 106 existential nihilists reject both naturalist and supernaturalist explanations by asserting that there is no higher purpose they suggest that life is meaningless with the consequence that there is no higher reason to continue living and that all efforts achievements happiness and suffering are ultimately pointless 107 formal axiology is a theory of value initially developed by philosopher robert s hartman this approach treats axiology as a formal science akin to logic and mathematics it uses axioms to give an abstract definition of value understanding it not as a property of things but as a property of concepts value measures the extent to which an entity fulfills its concept for example a good car has all the desirable qualities of cars like a reliable engine and effective brakes whereas a bad car lacks many formal axiology distinguishes between three fundamental value types intrinsic values apply to people extrinsic values apply to things actions and social roles systemic values apply to conceptual constructs formal axiology examines how these value types form a hierarchy and how they can be measured 108 methods edit value theorists employ various methods to conduct their inquiries justify theories and measure values intuitionists rely on intuitions to assess evaluative claims in this context an intuition is an immediate apprehension or understanding of a self evident claim meaning that its truth can be assessed without inferring it from another observation 109 value theorists often rely on thought experiments to gain this type of understanding thought experiments are imagined scenarios that exemplify philosophical problems philosophers use counterfactual reasoning to evaluate possible consequences and gain insight into underlying problems 110 for example philosopher robert nozick imagines an experience machine that can virtually simulate an ideal life based on his contention that people would not want to spend the rest of their lives in this pleasurable simulation nozick argues against the hedonist claim that pleasure is the only source of intrinsic value according to him the thought experiment shows that the value of an authentic connection to reality is not reducible to pleasure 111 s phenomenologists provide a detailed first person description of the experience of values they closely examine emotional experiences ranging from desire interest and preference to feelings in the form of love and hate however they do not limit their inquiry to these phenomena asserting that values permeate experience at large 112 a key aspect of the phenomenological method is to suspend preconceived ideas and judgments to understand the essence of experiences as they present themselves to consciousness 113 the analysis of concepts and ordinary language is another method of inquiry by examining terms and sentences used to talk about values value theorists aim to clarify their meanings uncover crucial distinctions and formulate arguments for and against axiological theories 114 for instance a prominent dispute between naturalists and non naturalists hinges on the conceptual analysis of the term good in particular whether its meaning can be analyzed through natural terms like pleasure 115 t the schwartz theory of basic human values is an instrument to measure value priorities it arranges different values in a circle using angular distance between values to indicate how compatible they are 116 in the social sciences value theorists face the challenge of measuring the evaluative outlook of individuals and groups specifically they aim to determine personal value hierarchies for example whether a person gives more weight to truth than to moral goodness or beauty 117 they distinguish between direct and indirect measurement methods direct methods involve asking people straightforward questions about what things they value and which value priorities they have this approach assumes that people are aware of their evaluative outlook and able to articulate it accurately indirect methods do not share this assumption asserting instead that values guide behavior and choices on an unconscious level consequently they observe how people decide and act seeking to infer the underlying value attitudes responsible for picking one course of action rather than another 118 various catalogs or scales of values have been proposed in psychology and related social sciences to measure value priorities the rokeach value survey considers a total of 36 values divided into two groups instrumental values like honesty and capability which serve as means to promote terminal values such as freedom and family security it asks participants to rank the values based on their impact on the participants lives aiming to understand the relative importance assigned to each of them the schwartz theory of basic human values is a modification of the rokeach value survey that seeks to provide a more cross cultural and universal assessment it arranges the values in a circular manner to reflect that neighboring values are compatible with each other such as openness to change and self enhancement while values on opposing sides may conflict with each other such as openness to change and conservation 119 in various fields edit ethics edit main article ethics ethics and value theory are overlapping fields of inquiry ethics studies moral phenomena focusing on how people should act or which behaviors are morally right 120 value theory investigates the nature sources and types of values in general 2 some philosophers understand value theory as a subdiscipline of ethics this is based on the idea that what people should do is affected by value considerations but not necessarily limited to them 7 another view sees ethics as a subdiscipline of value theory this outlook follows the idea that ethics is concerned with moral values affecting what people can control whereas value theory examines a broader range of values including those beyond anyone s control 121 some perspectives contrast ethics and value theory asserting that the normative concepts examined by ethics are distinct from the evaluative concepts examined by value theory 23 axiological ethics is a subfield of ethics examining the nature and role of values from a moral perspective with particular interest in determining which ends are worth pursuing 122 the ethical theory of consequentialism combines the perspectives of ethics and value theory asserting that the rightness of an action depends on the value of its consequences consequentialists compare possible courses of action saying that people should follow the one leading to the best overall consequences 123 the overall consequences of an action are the totality of its effects or how it impacts the world by starting a causal chain of events that would not have occurred otherwise 124 distinct versions of consequentialism rely on different theories of the sources of value classical utilitarianism a prominent form of consequentialism says that moral actions produce the greatest amount of pleasure for the greatest number of people it combines a consequentialist outlook on right action with a hedonist outlook on pleasure as the only source of intrinsic value 125 economics edit main article economics economics is a social science studying how goods and services are produced distributed and consumed both from the perspective of individual agents and societal systems 126 economists view evaluations as a driving force underlying economic activity they use the notion of economic value and related evaluative concepts to understand decision making processes resource allocation and the impact of policies the economic value or benefit of a commodity is the advantage it provides to an economic agent often measured in terms of what people are willing to pay for it 127 economic theories of value are frameworks to explain how economic value arises and which factors influence it prominent frameworks include the classical labor theory of value and the neo classical marginal theory of value 128 the labor theory initially developed by the economists adam smith and david ricardo distinguishes between use value the utility or satisfaction a commodity provides and exchange value the proportion at which one commodity can be exchanged with another 129 it focuses on exchange value which it says is determined by the amount of labor required to produce the commodity in its simplest form it directly correlates exchange value to labor time for example if the time needed to hunt a deer is twice the time needed to hunt a beaver then one deer is worth two beavers 130 the philosopher karl marx extended the labor theory of value in various ways he introduced the concept of surplus value which goes beyond the time and resources invested to explain how capitalists can profit from the labor of their employees 131 the marginal theory of value focuses on consumption rather than production it says that the utility of a commodity is the source of its value specifically it is interested in marginal utility the additional satisfaction gained from consuming one more unit of the commodity marginal utility often diminishes if many units have already been consumed leading to a decrease in the exchange value of commodities that are abundantly available 132 both the labor theory and the marginal theory were later challenged by the sraffian theory of value which considers diverse forms of production costs including but not limited to the quantity of labor 133 sociology edit main article sociology sociology studies social behavior relationships institutions and society at large 134 in their analyses and explanations of these phenomena some sociologists use the concept of values to understand issues like social cohesion and conflict the norms and practices people follow and collective action they usually understand values as subjective attitudes possessed by individuals and shared in social groups according to this view values are beliefs or priorities about goals worth pursuing that guide people to act in certain ways for example societies that value education may invest substantial resources to ensure high quality schooling this subjective conception of values as aspects of individuals and social groups contrasts with the objective conceptions of values more prominent in economics which understand values as aspects of commodities 135 shared values can help unite people in the pursuit of a common cause fostering social cohesion value differences by contrast may divide people into antagonistic groups that promote conflicting projects some sociologists employ value research to predict how people will behave given the observation that someone values the environment they may conclude that this person is more likely to recycle or support pro environmental legislation 136 one approach to this type of research uses value scales such as the rokeach value survey and the schwartz theory of basic human values to measure the value outlook of individuals and groups 137 anthropology edit main article anthropology anthropology also studies human behavior and societies but does not limit itself to contemporary social structures extending its focus to humanity both past and present 138 similar to sociologists many anthropologists understand values as social representations of goals worth pursuing for them values are embedded in mental structures associated with culture and ideology about what is desirable a slightly different approach in anthropology focuses on the practical side of values holding that values are constantly created through human activity 139 anthropological value theorists use values to compare cultures 140 they can be employed to examine similarities as universal concerns present in every society for example anthropologist clyde kluckhohn and sociologist fred strodtbeck proposed a set of value orientations found in every culture these orientations are centered on the topics of human nature human activity social organization relation to nature and a focus on past present or future 141 values can also be used to analyze differences between cultures and value changes within a culture anthropologist louis dumont followed this idea suggesting that the cultural meaning systems in distinct societies differ in their value priorities he argued that values are ordered hierarchically around a set of paramount values that trump all other values for example dumont analyzed the traditional indian caste system as a cultural hierarchy based on the value of purity extending from the pure brahmins to the untouchable dalits 142 the contrast between individualism and collectivism is an influential topic in cross cultural value research individualism promotes values associated with the autonomy of individuals such as self directedness independence and the fulfillment of personal goals collectivism gives priority to group related values like cooperation conformity and foregoing personal advantages for the sake of collective benefits as a rough simplification it is often suggested that individualism is more prominent in we...