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sons parsons s wife is a wan and hapless woman who is intimidated by her own children the parsons children a nine year old son and seven year old daughter both are members of the spies a youth organisation that focuses on indoctrinating children with party ideals and training them to report any suspected incidents of unorthodoxy they represent the new generation of oceanian citizens the model society envisioned by the inner party without memory of life before big brother and without family ties or emotional sentiment syme winston s colleague at the ministry of truth a lexicographer involved in compiling a new edition of the newspeak dictionary although he is enthusiastic about his work and support for the party winston notes he is too intelligent he sees too clearly and speaks too plainly winston predicts correctly that syme will become an unperson writing and publication edit conception edit the orwell archive at university college london contains undated notes about ideas that evolved into nineteen eighty four the notebooks have been deemed unlikely to have been completed later than january 1944 and there is a strong suspicion that some of the material in them dates back to the early part of the war 17 in one letter from 1948 orwell claims to have first thought of the book in 1943 while in another he says he thought of it in 1944 and cites the tehran conference in 1943 as inspiration what it is really meant to do is to discuss the implications of dividing the world up into zones of influence i thought of it in 1944 as a result of the tehran conference and in addition to indicate by parodying them the intellectual implications of totalitarianism 17 orwell had toured austria in may 1945 and observed manoeuvring he thought would probably lead to separate soviet and allied zones of occupation 18 19 in january 1944 the russian literary historian gleb struve introduced orwell to yevgeny zamyatin s 1924 dystopian novel we in his response orwell expressed an interest in the genre and informed struve that he had begun writing ideas for one of his own that may get written sooner or later 20 21 in 1946 orwell wrote about the 1931 dystopian novel brave new world by aldous huxley in his article freedom and happiness for the tribune and noted similarities to we 20 by this time orwell had scored a critical and commercial hit with his 1945 political satire animal farm which raised his profile for a follow up he decided to produce a dystopian work of his own 22 23 writing edit in a june 1944 meeting with fredric warburg co founder of his british publisher secker warburg shortly before the release of animal farm orwell announced that he had written the first 12 pages of his new novel as he could then only earn a living from journalism he predicted the book would not see a release before 1947 21 progress was slow by the end of september 1945 orwell had written some 50 pages 24 orwell became disenchanted with the restrictions and pressures involved with journalism and grew to detest city life in london 25 he suffered from bronchiectasis and a lesion in one lung the harsh winter worsened his health 26 the novel was completed at barnhill jura in may 1946 orwell arrived on the scottish island of jura 23 he had wanted to retreat to a hebridean island for several years david astor recommended he should stay at barnhill a remote farmhouse on the island that his family owned 27 with no electricity or hot water here orwell intermittently drafted and finished nineteen eighty four 23 his first stay lasted till october 1946 and during it he made little progress on the few already completed pages and for a period of three months he did not work on it at all 28 after spending the winter in london orwell returned to jura in may 1947 he reported to warburg that despite progress being slow and difficult he was roughly a third of the way through 29 he sent his ghastly mess of a first draft manuscript to london where miranda christen volunteered to type a clean version 30 orwell s health worsened further in september and he was confined to his bed with inflammation of the lungs he lost almost two stone 28 pounds or 12 7 kg in weight and had recurring night sweats but he decided not to see a doctor and continued writing 31 on 7 november 1947 he completed the first draft in bed and subsequently travelled to east kilbride near glasgow for medical treatment at hairmyres hospital where a specialist confirmed a chronic and infectious case of tuberculosis 32 30 orwell was discharged in the summer of 1948 after which he returned to jura and produced a full second draft of nineteen eighty four which he finished in november he asked warburg to have someone come to barnhill and retype the manuscript which was so untidy that the task was only considered possible if orwell were present as only he could understand it the previous volunteer had left the country and no other could be found at short notice so an impatient orwell retyped it himself at a rate of roughly 4 000 words a day during bouts of fever and bloody coughing fits 30 on 4 december 1948 orwell sent the finished manuscript to secker warburg and left barnhill for good in january 1949 he recovered at a sanitarium in the cotswolds 30 title edit shortly before completion of the second draft orwell vacillated between two titles the last man in europe an early title and nineteen eighty four 33 warburg suggested the latter which he took to be a more commercially viable choice 34 there has been a theory doubted by dorian lynskey author of a 2019 book about nineteen eighty four that 1984 was chosen simply as an inversion of the year 1948 the year in which it was being completed lynskey says the idea was first suggested by orwell s us publisher and it was also mentioned by christopher hitchens in his introduction to the 2003 edition of animal farm and 1984 which also notes that the date was meant to give an immediacy and urgency to the menace of totalitarian rule 35 however lynskey does not believe the inversion theory this idea seems far too cute for such a serious book scholars have raised other possibilities his wife eileen wrote a poem for her old school s centenary called end of the century 1984 g k chesterton s 1904 political satire the napoleon of notting hill which mocks the art of prophecy opens in 1984 the year is also a significant date in the iron heel but all of these connections are exposed as no more than coincidences by the early drafts of the novel first he wrote 1980 then 1982 and only later 1984 the most fateful date in literature was a late amendment 36 publication edit a 1947 draft manuscript of the first page of nineteen eighty four showing the editorial development in the run up to publication orwell called the novel a beastly book and expressed some disappointment towards it thinking it would have been improved had he not been so ill this was typical of orwell who had talked down his other books shortly before their release 36 nevertheless it was enthusiastically received by secker warburg who acted quickly before orwell had left jura he rejected their proposed blurb that portrayed it as a thriller mixed up with a love story 36 he also refused a proposal from the american book of the month club to release an edition without the appendix and chapter on goldstein s book a decision which warburg claimed cut off about 40 000 in sales 36 37 nineteen eighty four was published on 8 june 1949 in britain 36 38 39 orwell predicted earnings of around 500 a first print of 25 575 copies was followed by a further 5 000 copies in march and august 1950 40 it had the most immediate impact in the united states following its release there on 13 june 1949 by harcourt brace co an initial print of 20 000 copies was quickly followed by another 10 000 on 1 july and again on 7 september 41 by 1970 over 8 million copies had been sold in the us and in 1984 it topped the country s all time best seller list 42 in june 1952 orwell s widow sonia brownell sold the sole remaining manuscript at a charity auction for 50 43 the draft remains the only surviving literary manuscript from orwell and is held at the john hay library at brown university in providence rhode island us 44 45 variant english language editions edit in the original published uk and us editions of nineteen eighty four numerous small variations in the text exist the us edition altering orwell s agreed edit of the text as was typical of publishing practices of the time in regard to spelling and punctuation as well as some small edits and phrasings 46 while orwell rejected a proposed book club edition which would see substantial sections of the book removed these minor changes passed somewhat under the radar other more significant revisions and variant texts also exist however 47 46 in 1984 peter davison edited nineteen eighty four the facsimile of the extant manuscript published by secker and warburg in britain and harcourt brace jovanovich in the united states this reproduced page for page brownell s copy of the original manuscript in facsimiles as well as a complete typeset versions of that text complete with orwell s holograph and typewritten pages and handwritten amendments and corrections the book had a preface by daniel segal it has been reprinted in various international editions with translated introductions and notes and reprinted in english in limited edition formats in 1997 davison produced a definitive text of nineteen eighty four as part of secker s 20 volume definitive edition of the complete works of george orwell this edition removed errors and reversed editorial changes in the original editions made without orwell s oversight all based on detailed reference to orwell s original manuscript and notes this text has gone on to be reprinted in various subsequent paperback editions including one with an introduction by the novelist thomas pynchon without obvious note that it is a revised text and has been translated as an unexpurgated version of text in 2021 polygon published nineteen eighty four the jura edition with an introduction by alex massie sources for literary motifs edit nineteen eighty four uses themes from life in the soviet union and wartime life in great britain as sources for many of its motifs some time at an unspecified date after the first american publication of the book the producer sidney sheldon wrote to orwell interested in adapting the novel to the broadway stage orwell wrote in a letter to sheldon to whom he would sell the us stage rights that his basic goal with nineteen eighty four was imagining the consequences of stalinist government ruling british society nineteen eighty four was based chiefly on communism because that is the dominant form of totalitarianism but i was trying chiefly to imagine what communism would be like if it were firmly rooted in the english speaking countries and was no longer a mere extension of the russian foreign office 48 according to orwell s biographer d j taylor orwell s a clergyman s daughter 1935 has essentially the same plot of nineteen eighty four it s about somebody who is spied upon and eavesdropped upon and oppressed by vast exterior forces they can do nothing about it makes an attempt at rebellion and then has to compromise 49 a 1931 poster for the first five year plan of the soviet union by yakov guminer ru reading the arithmetic of an industrial financial counter plan 2 2 plus the enthusiasm of the workers 5 the statement 2 2 5 used to torment winston smith during his interrogation was a communist party slogan from the second five year plan which encouraged fulfilment of the five year plan in four years the slogan was seen in electric lights on moscow house fronts billboards and elsewhere 50 the switch of oceania s allegiance from eastasia to eurasia and the subsequent rewriting of history oceania was at war with eastasia oceania had always been at war with eastasia a large part of the political literature of five years was now completely obsolete ch 9 is evocative of the soviet union s changing relations with nazi germany the two nations were open and frequently vehement critics of each other until the signing of the 1939 treaty of non aggression thereafter and continuing until the nazi invasion of the soviet union in 1941 no criticism of germany was allowed in the soviet press and all references to prior party lines stopped including in the majority of non russian communist parties who tended to follow the russian line orwell had criticised the communist party of great britain for supporting the treaty in his essays for betrayal of the left 1941 the hitler stalin pact of august 1939 reversed the soviet union s stated foreign policy it was too much for many of the fellow travellers like gollancz orwell s sometime publisher who had put their faith in a strategy of construction popular front governments and the peace bloc between russia britain and france 51 leon trotsky joseph stalin descriptions of emmanuel goldstein and big brother evoke leon trotsky and joseph stalin respectively the description of emmanuel goldstein with a small goatee beard evokes the image of leon trotsky the film of goldstein during the two minutes hate is described as showing him being transformed into a bleating sheep this image was used in a propaganda film during the kino eye period of soviet film which showed trotsky transforming into a goat 52 page needed like goldstein trotsky was a formerly high ranking party official who was ostracised and then wrote a book criticising party rule the revolution betrayed published in 1936 the omnipresent images of big brother a man described as having a moustache bears resemblance to the cult of personality built up around joseph stalin 53 the news in oceania emphasised production figures just as it did in the soviet union where record setting in factories by heroes of socialist labour was especially glorified the best known of these was alexei stakhanov who purportedly set a record for coal mining in 1935 54 the tortures of the ministry of love evoke the procedures used by the nkvd in their interrogations 55 including beatings deprivation and torture through the use of their greatest fear 56 the random bombing of airstrip one is based on the area bombing of london by buzz bombs and the v 2 rocket in 1944 1945 53 the thought police is based on the nkvd which arrested people for anti soviet remarks 57 the confessions of the thought criminals rutherford aaronson and jones are based on the show trials of the 1930s which included fabricated confessions by the prominent bolsheviks nikolai bukharin grigory zinoviev and lev kamenev to the effect that they were being paid by the nazi government to undermine the soviet regime under leon trotsky s direction 58 the song under the spreading chestnut tree under the spreading chestnut tree i sold you and you sold me was based on an old english song called go no more a rushing under the spreading chestnut tree where i knelt...