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which the original meaning of the words involved does not play a role and a virtually boundless list of words referring to functions and family relations proper names do not play a role in this respect for example first person pronouns can be manifested as nghulun hulun slave and ngwang wwang man demonstrative pronouns edit old javanese has four sets of demonstrative pronouns the members of each set represent different degrees of distance seen from the speaker while the four sets at least in theory express different shades of stress demonstrative pronouns in old javanese neutral stress more stress more stress this iki tiki ike that with the listener iku tiku iko that far from both ika tika ikā tikā determiner edit old javanese does not have an indefinite article a noun without an article is indefinite old javanese has three sorts of articles to express definiteness a definite article several honorific articles and ika there are still other ways of expressing definiteness in old javanese for example the possessive suffix both definite articles and honorific articles are placed before the noun and cannot stand by themselves the definite article is a ng and it is written combined with particles examples of honorific articles that express a certain amount of respect are si pun sang sang hyang ḍang hyang śrī and ra besides the definite article and the articles of respect ika can be used to express definiteness the word ika has two functions those are definite article and demonstrative pronoun the word ika as a demonstrative pronoun means that which is used to differentiate from this if there is no such contrast its function is that of a definite article meaning the ika is put in front of the word to which it belongs and always combined with the definite article possessive suffixes edit expression of possessiveness in old javanese is done with the help of possessive suffixes such as suffix n ing and n ika the suffix ning is constructed from clitic n i and the definite article a ng the clitic n i have no meaning and cannot stand alone although it is required in the construction it is generally written as ning while it is written as ing after base word ending in n the suffix n ika is constructed from clitic n i and definite article ika and is written as nika generally while it is written as ika after base word ending in n the possessiveness can be expressed with pronominal suffixes in which no definite article is added in a such case honorific articles can also express possessiveness and definiteness such as ujar sang guru the word of the teacher by placing the honorific article after the possessed noun and followed by the possessor adjective edit old javanese have two types of adjectives the first one is an adjective class base word such as urip alive the second one is an adjective class derived word that uses affixation with the prefix m a from noun base words such as adoh far away from doh distance ahayu beautiful from hayu beauty and mastrī married from strī wife in case of derivation with the prefix m a the sandhi law is observed especially when the base word starts with a vowel such as mānak having a child from anak child enak at ease from inak ease and mojar having speech from ujar speech while there is no change if the word begins with a consonant nouns can be qualified by adjectives adverb edit verbs and adjectives and also adverbs can be qualified by adverbs adverbs are placed before of the words they qualify except dahat very very much is placed after the word the word tan is used to express not and have several forms as tatan tātan ndatan and ndātan preposition edit there are several prepositions in old javanese in which the noun preceded by the preposition is definite such as preposition r i has the meaning of in on at and to but also for towards and even by and through preposition sa ng ka has the meaning of from compared to than in comparisons because of combination of both prepositions however there are particularities in the expression of inside or from inside in old javanese old javanese use a combination of either jĕro or dalĕm inner part depth followed by clitic ni such as dalĕmnikang to express the idea of inside or from inside the preposition of the inside is expressed by placing either r i or sake before either jĕro or dalĕm inner part depth without placement of both clitic ni and definite articles it is important to remember that r i can be used as an object marker of transitive verb and proper noun maker conjunction edit there are several conjunctions in old javanese the most common ones are an yan apan and yarapwan the order of elements in sub clauses headed by an is the same as in main clauses the subject follows the predicate however different from main clauses in sub clauses headed by an no separating particle is used conjunction an can be interpreted as either that so that in order to and while as the use of an may cause the suppression of um and denasalization conjunction yan means that or if when conjunction apan means because syntax edit in a basic clause predicate and subject are separated from each other by a particle ta marking the border between both parts of the sentence for example lunghā ta sira means he leaves as leave lunghā particle ta and the third person pronoun sira the predicate comes first in the sentence the subject follows the predicate which is the normal order however the reversed order also occurs which it signals of some particularity such as stress intended by the writer these sentences lack an indication of time 2 subject in old javanese can be personal pronoun noun and proper names the predicate can be a verbal predicate where the predicate is a verb the predicate can also be a nominal predicate where the predicate can be an adjective and nouns including proper names and pronouns old javanese verbs are not conjugated and do not formally distinguish between present and past time vocabulary edit the most important shaping force on old javanese was its austronesian heritage in vocabulary that it shared with its sister languages in southeast asia a related question is the form in which sanskrit words were loaned in old javanese the borrowed sanskrit words in old javanese are almost without exceptions nouns and adjectives in their undeclined form sanskrit lingga old javanese texts contain many more characters with similar phonology values to represent distinct vowels and consonants in sanskrit such as unadapted loanwords wherever these diacritics occur in old javanese texts they are neglected in pronunciation bhaṭāra is the same as baṭara loss of vowel length and aspiration is also shared by elu prakrit the ancestor of sinhala nor do they influence the order of the words in the dictionary the variants s ṣ and ś for example are all treated like s examples of old javanese vocabulary old javanese source notes words meaning language words meaning abhyāsa to be practiced in to occupy to be familiar with acquainted with at home in sanskrit अभ्यास abhyāsa drill habit apuy fire oxidation reaction proto malayo polynesian hapuy fire camĕṭi whip tamil சம்மட்டி cammaṭṭi horse whip large hammer duh juice sap oil proto malayo polynesian zuʀuq sap juice jro inside interior depth proto austroasiatic ɟruh ɟruuʔ deep juruh syrup liquid sugar proto malayo polynesian zuʀuq sap juice kidaṅ muntjac proto austroasiatic jəŋ deer venison lāghawa swift agile dextrous versatile skilled versed accomplished sanskrit लाघव lāghava ease relief tūt following along proto malayo polynesian tuʀut to follow instructions follow an example carry along give in allow something to happen orthography edit main article kawi script old javanese was written with kawi or old javanese script in 8th 16th century the kawi script is a brahmic script found primarily in java and used across much of maritime southeast asia the kawi script is related to the pallava script and kadamba script in south india nowadays old javanese can be written with balinese script and javanese script in modern literatures which are descendants of kawi script usage edit oral expression edit kawi is not truly extinct as a spoken language it is commonly used in some javanese traditional events such as wayang golek wayang wong and wayang kulit in addition to high activities such as a javanese wedding especially for the stylised meeting ritual of bride s parents with groom s parents in the ceremonies of peningsetan and panggih archaically or for certain nobles very strongly attached to tradition it is used for the midodareni siraman and sungkeman ceremonies of the javanese wedding the island of lombok has adopted kawi as its regional language reflecting the very strong influence of east java today it is taught in primary school education as part of the compulsory secondary language unit of national curriculum traditionally kawi is written on lontar prepared palm leaves literature edit main article kakawin kawi remains in occasional use as an archaic prose and literary language in a similar fashion to shakespeare era english there are many important literary works written in kawi most notably empu tantular s epic poem kakawin sutasoma 3 from which is taken the national motto of indonesia bhinneka tunggal ika although often glibly translated as unity in diversity it is more correctly rendered as although scattered remaining as one referring to the scattered islands of the archipelago nation not as an expression of multicultural solidarity as may be perceived in modern times a more modern work is the poem susila budhi dharma by muhammad subuh sumohadiwidjojo the founder of subud in this work he provides a framework for understanding the experience of the latihan kejiwaan list of famous poems epics and other literature edit famous poems epics and other literature include shivagrha inscription 856 kakawin ramayana 870 kakawin arjunawiwaha mpu kanwa 1030 kakawin kresnayana kakawin sumanasantaka kakawin smaradhana kakawin bhomakawya kakawin bharatayuddha mpu sedah and mpu panuluh 1157 kakawin hariwangsa kakawin gatotkacasraya kakawin wrettasañcaya kakawin wrettayana kakawin brahmandapurana kakawin kunjarakarna mpu dusun kakawin nagarakertagama mpu prapanca 1365 kakawin arjunawijaya mpu tantular kakawin sutasoma mpu tantular kakawin siwaratrikalpa kakawin lubdhaka kakawin parthayajna kakawin nitisastra kakawin nirarthaprakreta kakawin dharmasunya kakawin harisraya kakawin banawa sekar tanakung pararaton 16th century a chronicle of the kingdoms of singhasari and majapahit tantri kamandaka a collection of fables based on the panchatantra prominent authors edit the following are notable authors of literary works in kawi 4 mpu kanwa 11th century mpu sedah 12th century mpu panuluh 12th century mpu dharmaja 12th century mpu monaguna 12th century mpu triguna 12th century mpu tantular 14th century mpu prapanca 14th century mpu tanakung 15th century inscription edit the earliest written records in an indigenous language found in java are indeed in old javanese 5 karangtengah inscription 824 ce tri tepusan inscription 842 ce shivagrha inscription 856 ce mantyasih inscription 907 ce turyyan inscription 929 anjuk ladang inscription 935 937 terep inscription 1032 turun hyang ii inscription 1044 kambang putih inscription 1050 banjaran inscription 1052 malenga inscription 1052 garaman inscription 1053 sumengka inscription 1059 hantang ngantang inscription 1135 mula malurung inscription 1255 kudadu inscription 1294 tuhañaru jayanagara ii inscription 1323 waringin pitu inscription 1447 nevertheless there are exceptions to this pattern of language distribution in the epigraphical record there are several inscription using old javanese language on the island of sumatra by editing three short epigraphs 5 inscription of kapalo bukit gombak ii inscribed makara from the northern gopura candi kedaton muara jambi temple complex inscribed golden bowl of rokan hilir riau scholars edit the first scholar to address kawi in a serious academic manner was wilhelm von humboldt who considered it the father of all malay polynesian languages furthermore he deprecated misconceptions about kawi being wholly influenced by sanskrit finding that kawi did not use verb inflexion thus differing from sanskrit s highly developed inflectional system kawi might have come from a very ancient settlement in the pacific side of asia in kawi language the meaning of a sentence must be grasped through word order and context humboldt further claimed that kawi utilizes tense distinctions with past present and future citation needed and differentiated moods via the imperative and subjunctive numerous scholars have studied the language including the dutch expatriate indonesian prof dr petrus josephus zoetmulder s j who contributed an enormous quantity of original texts and serious scholarly study to the language and his pupil and associate father dr ignatius kuntara wiryamartana other eminent indonesian scholars of the language include poedjawijatna sumarti suprayitna poerbatjaraka and tardjan hadiwidjaja see also edit bhinneka tunggal ika johan hendrik caspar kern eugenius marius uhlenbeck petrus josephus zoetmulder old malay old sundanese references edit 1 2 arps bernard 2 september 2019 the power of the heart that blazes in the world an islamic theory of religions in early modern java indonesia and the malay world 47 139 308 334 doi 10 1080 13639811 2019 1654217 issn 1363 9811 1 2 3 van der molen willem 2015 an introduction to old javanese tokyo research institute for languages and cultures of asia and africa tokyo university of foreign studies uhlenbeck e m 1964 a critical survey of studies on the languages of java and madura dordrecht springer netherlands doi 10 1007 978 94 011 8790 9 isbn 978 94 011 8158 7 cite book isbn date incompatibility help zoetmulder p j 1974 kalangwan a survey of old javanese literature the hague martinus nijhoff 1 2 griffiths arlo october 2012 inscriptions of sumatra ii short epigraphs in old javanese wacana journal of the humanities of indonesia 14 2 197 214 doi 10 17510 wjhi v14i2 61 inactive 12 july 2025 cite journal cs1 maint doi inactive as of july 2025 link bibliography edit de casparis j g 1975 indonesian palaeography a history of writing in indonesia from the beginnings to c ad 1500 leiden köln e j brill florida nancy k 1993 javanese literature in surakarta manuscripts introduction and manuscripts of the karaton surakarta ithaca n y cornell university isbn 0 87727 603 x wilhelm von humboldt 1836 über die kawi sprache on the kawi language in german vol 1 vol 2 vol 3 poerbatjaraka tardjan hadiwidjaja 1952 kepustakaan djawa djakarta amsterdam djambatan avenir stepanovich teselkin 1972 old javanese kawi cornell university modern indonesia project translation series ithaca n y modern indonesia project southeast asia program cornell university teeuw a robson s o eds 2005 bhomāntaka the death of bhoma bibliotheca indonesica 32 leiden kitlv press isbn 90 6718 253 2 uhlenbeck e m...