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song transcribed phonetically in chinese characters in 528 bc and included with a chinese translation in the garden of stories compiled by liu xiang five centuries later 1 scholars disagree about which languages the yue spoke and draw candidates from the non sinitic language families still represented in areas of southern china classification theories edit candidates for the old yue language include kra dai hmong mien and austroasiatic languages 2 chinese kra dai hmong mien and the vietic branch of austroasiatic have similar tone systems syllable structure grammatical features and lack of inflection but these features are believed to have spread by means of diffusion across the mainland southeast asia linguistic area rather than indicating common descent 3 4 scholars in china often assume that the yue spoke an early form of kra dai according to sagart 2008 this is far from self evident because the core of the kra dai area geographically is located in hainan and the china vietnam border region which is beyond the extreme southern end of the yue area the linguist wei qingwen gave a rendering of the song of the yue boatman in standard zhuang zhengzhang shangfang proposed an interpretation of the song in written thai dating from the late 13th century as the closest available approximation to the original language but his interpretation remains controversial 1 5 peiros 2011 shows with his analysis that the homeland of austroasiatic is somewhere near the yangtze he suggests southern sichuan or slightly west from it as the likely homeland of proto austroasiatic speakers before they migrated to other parts of china and then into southeast asia he further suggests that the family must be as old as proto austronesian and proto sino tibetan or even older 6 the linguists sagart 2011 and bellwood 2013 support the theory of an origin of austroasiatic along the yangtze river in southern china citation needed sagart 2008 suggests that the old yue language together with the proto austronesian language was descended from the language or languages of the tánshíshān xītóu culture complex modern day fujian province of china making the old yue language a sister language to proto austronesian which sagart sees as the origin of the kra dai languages 7 behr 2009 also notes that the chǔ dialect of old chinese was influenced by several substrata predominantly kra dai but also possibly austroasiatic austronesian and hmong mien 8 full citation needed kra dai arguments edit the proto kra dai language has been hypothesized to originate in the lower yangtze valleys ancient chinese texts refer to non sinitic languages spoken across this substantial region and their speakers as yue although those languages are extinct traces of their existence could be found in unearthed inscriptional materials ancient chinese historical texts and non han substrata in various southern chinese dialects thai one of the tai languages and the most spoken language in the kra dai language family has been used extensively in historical comparative linguistics to identify the origins of language s spoken in the ancient region of south china one of the very few direct records of non sinitic speech in pre qin and han times having been preserved so far is the song of the yue boatman yueren ge 越人歌 which was transcribed phonetically in chinese characters in 528 bc and found in the 善说 shanshuo chapter of the shuoyuan 说苑 or garden of persuasions willeam meacham 1996 reports that chinese linguists have shown strong evidence of tai vestiges in former yue areas lin 1990 found tai elements in some min dialects zhenzhang 1990 has proposed tai etymologies and interpretations for certain place names in the former states of wu and yue and wei 1982 found similarities in the words combinations and rhyming scheme between the song of the yue boatman and the kam tai languages 9 james r chamberlain 2016 proposes that the kra dai language family was formed as early as the 12th century bce in the middle of the yangtze basin coinciding roughly with the establishment of the chu state and the beginning of the zhou dynasty 10 following the southward migrations of kra and hlai rei li peoples around the 8th century bce the yue be tai people started to break away and move to the east coast in the present day zhejiang province in the 6th century bce forming the state of yue and conquering the state of wu shortly thereafter 10 according to chamberlain yue people be tai began to migrate southwards along the east coast of china to what are now guangxi guizhou and northern vietnam after yue was conquered by chu around 333 bce there the yue be tai formed the polities xi ou which became the northern tai and the luo yue which became the central southwestern tai 10 however pittayaporn 2014 after examining layers of chinese loanwords in proto southwestern tai and other historical evidence proposes that the southwestward migration of southwestern tai speaking tribes from the modern guangxi to the mainland of southeast asia must have taken place only sometime between the 8th 10th centuries ce 11 long after 44 ce when chinese sources last mentioned luo yue in the red river delta 12 proposed genesis of daic languages and their relation with austronesian languages blench 2018 13 kra dai tai kadai migration route according to james r chamberlain 2016 14 tai kadai migration route according to matthias gerner s northeast to southwest hypothesis 15 ancient textual evidence edit in the early 1980s zhuang linguist wei qingwen 韦庆稳 electrified the scholarly community in guangxi by identifying the language in the song of the yue boatman as a language ancestral to zhuang 16 wei used reconstructed old chinese for the characters and discovered that the resulting vocabulary showed strong resemblance to modern zhuang 17 later zhengzhang shangfang 1991 followed wei s insight but used thai script for comparison since this orthography dates from the 13th century and preserves archaisms relative to the modern pronunciation 17 1 zhengzhang notes that evening night dark bears the c tone in wuming zhuang xam c2 and ɣam c2 night the item raa normally means we inclusive but in some places e g tai lue and white tai i 18 however laurent sagart criticizes zhengzhang s interpretation as anachronistic because however archaic that thai script is thai language was only written 2000 years after the song had been recorded even if the proto kam tai might have emerged by 6th century bce its pronunciation would have been substantially different from thai 5 the following is a simplified interpretation of the song of the yue boatman by zhengzhang shangfang quoted by david holm 2013 with thai script and chinese glosses being omitted 19 b 濫 ɦgraams glamx evening 兮 ɦee ɦee ptcl 抃 brons blɤɤn joyful 草 tshuuʔ cɤɤ cɤʔ to meet 濫 ɦgraams glamx evening 濫 兮 抃 草 濫 ɦgraams ɦee brons tshuuʔ ɦgraams glamx ɦee blɤɤn cɤɤ cɤʔ glamx evening ptcl joyful to meet evening oh the fine night we meet in happiness tonight 予 la raa we i 昌 thjang khljang djaangh be apt to 枑 澤 gaah draag kraʔ ʔdaak shy ashamed 予 la raa we i 昌 thjang djaangh be good at 州 tju klju cɛɛu to row 予 昌 枑 澤 予 昌 州 la thjang khljang gaah draag la thjang tju klju raa djaangh kraʔ ʔdaak raa djaangh cɛɛu we i be apt to shy ashamed we i be good at to row i am so shy ah i am good at rowing 州 tju cɛɛu to row 𩜱 khaamʔ khaamx to cross 州 tju cɛɛu to row 焉 jen jɤɤnh slowly 乎 faak faak deposit 秦 dzin djɯɯnh joy 胥 胥 sai jai sai jaiʔ into heart 州 𩜱 州 焉 乎 秦 胥 胥 tju khaamʔ tju jen faak dzin sai jai cɛɛu khaamx cɛɛu jɤɤnh faak djɯɯnh sai jaiʔ to row to cross to row slowly deposit joy into heart rowing slowly across the river ah i am so pleased 縵 moons mɔɔm dirty ragged 予 la raa we i 乎 haak haak if 昭 tjau kljau caux prince 澶 daans daanh your excellency 秦 dzin djin acquainted 踰 lo ruux know 縵 予 乎 昭 澶 秦 踰 moons la haak tjau kljau daans dzin lo mɔɔm raa haak caux daanh djin ruux dirty ragged we i if prince your excellency acquainted know dirty though i am ah i made acquaintance with your highness the prince 滲 srɯms zumh to hide 惿 djeʔ gljeʔ jaï heart 隨 sɦloi cua forever constantly 河 gaai ha to search 湖 gaa huan to yearn 滲 惿 隨 河 湖 srɯms djeʔ gljeʔ sɦloi gaai gaa zumh jaï cua ha huan to hide heart forever constantly to search to yearn hidden forever in my heart ah is my adoration and longing some scattered non sinitic words found in the two ancient chinese fictional texts the mu tianzi zhuan chinese 穆天子傳 4th c b c and the yuejue shu chinese 越絕書 1st c a d can be compared to lexical items in kra dai languages these two texts are only preserved in corrupt versions and share a rather convoluted editorial history wolfgang behr 2002 makes an attempt to identify the origins of those words 吳謂善 伊 謂稻道 緩 號從中國 名從主人 20 the wú say yī for good and huăn for way i e in their titles they follow the central kingdoms but in their names they follow their own lords 伊 yī ʔjij b q l ij siamese dii a1 longzhou dai 1 bo ai nii 1 daiya li 1 sipsongpanna di 1 dehong li 6 proto tai ʔdɛi a1 sui ʔdaai 1 kam laai 1 maonan ʔdaai 1 mak ʔdaai 6 proto kam sui proto kam tai ʔdaai 1 good proto malayo polynesian bait 緩 huăn hwanx a wan siamese hon a1 bo ai hɔn 1 dioi thon 1 proto tai xron a1 sui khwən 1 i kam khwən 1 maonan khun 1 i mulam khwən 1 i proto kam sui khwən 1 road way proto hlai kuun 1 proto austronesian zalan thurgood 1994 353 yuè jué shū 越絕書 the book of yuè records 1st c a d 21 絕 jué dzjwet b dzot siamese cod d1 to record mark zhengzhang shangfang 1999 8 姑中山者越銅官之山也 越人謂之銅 姑 沽 瀆 21 the middle mountains of gū are the mountains of the yuè s bronze office the yuè people call them bronze gū gū dú 姑 沽 瀆 gūdú ku duwk a ka a lok siamese kʰau a1 horn daiya xau 5 sipsongpanna xau 1 dehong xau 1 lü xău 1 dioi kaou 1 mountain hill proto tai kʰau a2 siamese luuk d2l classifier for mountains siamese kʰau a1 luuk d2l mountain cf oc 谷 gǔ kuwk a k lok luwk a kə lok yowk b lok valley 越人謂船爲 須盧 22 the yuè people call a boat xūlú beard cottage 須 xū sju b s n o siamese saʔ noun prefix 盧 lú lu b ra siamese rɯa a2 longzhou lɯɯ 2 bo ai luu 2 daiya hə 2 dehong hə 2 boat proto tai drɯ a o sui lwa 1 ʔda 1 kam lo 1 lwa 1 be zoa proto kam sui s lwa n a1 boat 劉 賈築吳市西城 名曰 定錯 城 23 líu jiă the king of jīng 荆 built the western wall it was called dìngcuò settle d grindstone wall 定 dìng dengh a deng s siamese diaaŋ a1 daiya tʂhəŋ 2 sipsongpanna tseŋ 2 malay austronesian dindiŋ 2 tagalog diŋdiŋ 2 wall 錯 cuò tshak a tshak siamese tok d1s to set sunset west tawan tok sun set west longzhou tuk 7 bo ai tɔk 7 daiya tok 7 sipsongpanna tok 7 proto tai tok d1s ǀ sui tok 7 mak tok 7 maonan tɔk proto kam sui tɔk d1 malay austronesian suntuk running out of time substrate in modern chinese languages edit besides a limited number of lexical items left in chinese historical texts remnants of language s spoken by the ancient yue can be found in non han substrata in southern chinese dialects e g wu min hakka yue etc robert bauer 1987 identifies twenty seven lexical items in yue hakka and min varieties which share kra dai roots 24 the following are some examples cited from bauer 1987 24 to beat whip yue guangzhou faak 7a wuming zhuang fa k 8 siamese faat d2l longzhou faat po ai faat to beat pound yue guangzhou tap 8 siamese thup 4 top 2 longzhou tup d1 po ai tup 3 tɔp d1 mak dong tap d2 tai nuea top 5 sui lingam tjăp d2 sui jungchiang tjăp d2 sui pyo tjăp d2 t en tjap d2 white tai tup 4 red tai tup 3 shan thup 5 lao nong khai thip 3 lue moeng yawng tup 5 leiping zhuang thop 5 top 4 western nung tup 4 yay tup 5 saek thap 6 tai lo thup 3 tai maw thup 3 tai no top 5 wuming zhuang tup 8 li jiamao tap 8 to bite yue guangzhou khap 8 siamese khop 2 longzhou khoop 5 po ai hap 3 ahom khup shan khop 4 lü khop white tai khop 2 nung khôp hsi lin hap d2s wuming zhuang hap 8 t ien pao hap black tai khop 2 red tai khop 3 lao nong khai khop 1 western nung khap 6 etc to burn yue guangzhou naat 7a hakka nat 8 wuming zhuang na t 8 po ai naat d1l hot child min chaozhou noŋ 1 kiā 3 child min suixi nuŋ 3 kia 3 mandarin chengdu nɑŋ 1 pɑ 1 kər 1 youngest sibling min fuzhou nauŋ 6 young immature siamese nɔɔŋ 4 tai lo lɔŋ 3 tai maw nɔŋ 3 tai no nɔŋ 3 younger sibling wuming zhuang tak 8 nu ŋ 4 longzhou no ŋ 4 ba u 5 buyi nuaŋ 4 dai xishuangbanna nɔŋ 4 tsa i 2 dai dehong lɔŋ 4 tsa i 2 etc correct precisely just now yue guangzhou ŋaam 1 correct ŋaam 1 ŋaam 1 just now hakka meixian ŋam 5 ŋam 5 precisely hakka youding ŋaŋ 1 ŋaŋ 1 just right min suixi ŋam 1 fit min chaozhou ŋam 1 min hainan ŋam 1 ŋam 1 good wuming zhuang ŋa m 1 proper ŋa m 3 precisely appropriate ŋa m 5 exactly longzhou ŋa m 5 vəi 6 to cover 1 yue guangzhou hom 6 ham 6 siamese hom 2 longzhou hum 5 po ai hɔm b1 lao hom ahom hum shan hom 2 lü hum white tai hum 2 black tai hoom 2 red tai hom 3 nung hôm tay hôm tho hoom t ien pao ham dioi hom hsi lin hɔm t ien chow hɔm lao nong khai hom 3 western nung ham 2 etc to cover 2 yue guangzhou khap 7 yue yangjiang kap 7a hakka meixian khɛp 7 min xiamen kaˀ 7 min quanzhou kaˀ 7 min zhangzhou kaˀ 7 to cover wuming zhuang kop 8 to cover li jiamao khɔp 7 li baocheng khɔp 7 li qiandui khop 9 li tongshi khop 7 to cover to lash whip thrash yue guangzhou fit 7 wuming zhuang fit 8 li baoding fi t 7 monkey yue guangzhou ma 4 lau 1 wuming zhuang ma 4 lau 2 mulao mə 6 lau 2 to slip off fall off lose yue guangzhou lat 7 hakka lut 7 hakka yongding lut 7 min dongshandao lut 7 min suixi lak 8 min chaozhou luk 7 siamese lut d1s longzhou luut po ai loot wiming zhuang lo t 7 to stamp foot trample yue guangzhou tam 6 hakka tem 5 wuming zhuang tam 6 po ai tam b2 lao tham lü tam nung tam stupid yue guangzhou ŋɔŋ 6 hakka meixian ŋɔŋ 5 hakka yongfing ŋɔŋ 5 min dongshandao goŋ 6 min suixi ŋɔŋ 1 min fuzhou ŋouŋ 6 be lingao ŋən 2 wuming zhuang ŋu ŋ 6 li baoding ŋaŋ 2 li zhongsha ŋaŋ 2 li xifan ŋaŋ 2 li yuanmen ŋaŋ 4 li qiaodui ŋaŋ 4 li tongshi ŋaŋ 4 li baocheng ŋa ŋ 2 li jiamao ŋa ŋ 2 to tear pinch peel nip yue guangzhou mit 7 tear break off pinch peel off with finger hakka met 7 pluck pull out peel be lingao mit 5 rip tear longzhou bit d1s po ai mit nung bêt tay bit pick pluck nip off wuming zhuang bit 7 tear off twist peel pinch squeeze press li tongshi mi t 7 li baoding mi t 7 pinch squeeze press substrate in cantonese edit yue hashimoto describes the yue chinese languages spoken in guangdong as having a tai influence 25 robert bauer 1996 points out twenty nine possible cognates between cantonese spoken in guangzhou and kra dai of which seven cognates are confirmed to originate from kra dai sources 26 cantonese 雞項 kɐj 1 hɔ ŋ 2 wuming zhuang kai 5 ha ŋ 6 young chicken which has not laid eggs 27 cantonese ja ŋ 5 siamese jâ ŋ to step on tread 28 cantonese 冚 kɐm 6 wuming zhuang kam 6 siamese kʰòm be lingao xɔm 4 to press down or suppress 29 cantonese 蛤乸 kɐp 7b na 3 c wuming zhuang kop 7 siamese kòp frog 30 cantonese 及 khɐp 8 siamese kʰòp to bite 30 cantonese 冧 lɐm 5 siamese lóm maonan lam 5 to collapse to topple to fall down building 31 cantonese tɐm 5 wuming ...