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upload file special pages search search appearance donate create account log in personal tools donate create account log in contents move to sidebar hide top 1 determining factors toggle determining factors subsection 1 1 binning 1 2 engineering 2 historical milestones and current records 3 research 4 comparing 5 see also 6 references toggle the table of contents clock rate 24 languages العربية català čeština deutsch español eesti euskara فارسی suomi français italiano 日本語 한국어 олык марий മലയാളം nederlands norsk bokmål ਪੰਜਾਬੀ polski português русский simple english українська 中文 edit links article talk english read edit view history tools tools move to sidebar hide actions read edit view history general what links here related changes upload file permanent link page information cite this page get shortened url switch to legacy parser print export download as pdf printable version in other projects wikidata item appearance move to sidebar hide from wikipedia the free encyclopedia redirected from operating frequency frequency at which a cpu chip or core is operating clocking redirects here for the practice of tampering with odometers to read less mileage see odometer fraud microprocessor clock speed measures the number of pulses per second generated by an oscillator that sets the tempo for the processor it is measured in hertz pulses per second in computing clock rate or clock speed is the frequency at which the clock generator of a processor can generate pulses used to synchronize the operations of its components 1 it is used as an indicator of the processor speed clock rate is measured in the si unit of frequency hertz symbol hz the clock rate of the first generation of computers was measured in hertz or kilohertz khz the first personal computers from the 1970s through the 1980s had clock rates measured in megahertz mhz in the 21st century the speed of modern cpus is commonly advertised in gigahertz ghz this metric is most useful when comparing processors within the same family holding constant other features that may affect performance determining factors edit binning edit representation of a clock signal and clock rate manufacturers of modern processors typically charge higher prices for processors that operate at higher clock rates a practice called binning for a given cpu the clock rates are determined at the end of the manufacturing process through testing of each processor chip manufacturers publish a maximum clock rate specification and they test chips before selling them to make sure they meet that specification even when executing the most complicated instructions with the data patterns that take the longest to settle testing at the temperature and voltage that gives the lowest performance processors successfully tested for compliance with a given set of standards may be labeled with a higher clock rate e g 3 50 ghz while those that fail the standards of the higher clock rate yet pass the standards of a lower clock rate may be labeled with the lower clock rate e g 3 3 ghz and sold at a lower price 2 3 engineering edit the clock rate of a cpu is normally determined by the frequency of an oscillator crystal typically a crystal oscillator produces a fixed sine wave the frequency reference signal electronic circuitry translates that into a square wave at the same frequency for digital electronics applications or when using a cpu multiplier some fixed multiple of the crystal reference frequency the clock distribution network inside the cpu carries that clock signal to all the parts that need it an a d converter has a clock pin driven by a similar system to set the sampling rate with any particular cpu replacing the crystal with another crystal that oscillates at half the frequency underclocking will generally make the cpu run at half the performance and reduce waste heat produced by the cpu conversely some people try to increase performance of a cpu by replacing the oscillator crystal with a higher frequency crystal overclocking 4 however the amount of overclocking is limited by the time for the cpu to settle after each pulse and by the extra heat created after each clock pulse the signal lines inside the cpu need time to settle to their new state that is every signal line must finish transitioning from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 if the next clock pulse comes before that the results will be incorrect in the process of transitioning some energy is wasted as heat mostly inside the driving transistors when executing complicated instructions that cause many transitions the higher the clock rate the more heat produced transistors may be damaged by excessive heat there is also a lower limit of the clock rate unless a fully static core is used historical milestones and current records edit the first fully mechanical digital computer the z1 operated at 1 hz cycle per second clock frequency and the first electromechanical general purpose computer the z3 operated at a frequency of about 5 10 hz the first electronic general purpose computer the eniac used a 100 khz clock in its cycling unit as each instruction took 20 cycles it had an instruction rate of 5 khz the first commercial pc the altair 8800 by mits used an intel 8080 cpu with a clock rate of 2 mhz 2 million cycles per second the original ibm pc c 1981 had a clock rate of 4 77 mhz 4 772 727 cycles per second in 1992 both hewlett packard and digital equipment corporation dec exceeded 100 mhz with risc techniques in the pa 7100 and axp 21064 dec alpha respectively in 1995 intel s p5 pentium chip ran at 100 mhz 100 million cycles per second on march 6 2000 amd demonstrated passing the 1 ghz milestone a few days ahead of intel shipping 1 ghz in systems in 2002 an intel pentium 4 model was introduced as the first cpu with a clock rate of 3 ghz three billion cycles per second corresponding to 0 33 nanoseconds per cycle since then the clock rate of production processors has increased more slowly with performance improvements coming from other design changes set in 2011 the guinness world record for the highest cpu clock rate is 8 42938 ghz with an overclocked amd fx 8150 bulldozer based chip in an lhe ln2 cryobath 5 ghz on air 5 6 this is surpassed by the cpu z overclocking record for the highest cpu clock rate at 8 79433 ghz with an amd fx 8350 piledriver based chip bathed in ln2 achieved in november 2012 7 8 it is also surpassed by the slightly slower amd fx 8370 overclocked to 8 72 ghz which tops off the hwbot frequency rankings 9 10 these records were broken in 2025 when an intel core i9 14900kf was overclocked to 9 12 ghz 11 the highest boost clock rate on a production processor is the i9 14900ks clocked at 6 2 ghz which was released in q1 2024 12 research edit engineers continue to find new ways to design cpus that settle a little more quickly or use slightly less energy per transition pushing back those limits producing new cpus that can run at slightly higher clock rates the ultimate limits to energy per transition are explored in reversible computing the first fully reversible cpu the pendulum was implemented using standard cmos transistors in the late 1990s at the massachusetts institute of technology 13 14 15 16 engineers also continue to find new ways to design cpus so that they complete more instructions per clock cycle thus achieving a lower cpi cycles or clock cycles per instruction count although they may run at the same or a lower clock rate as older cpus this is achieved through architectural techniques such as instruction pipelining and out of order execution which attempts to exploit instruction level parallelism in the code comparing edit main article megahertz myth the clock rate of a cpu is most useful for providing comparisons between cpus in the same family the clock rate is only one of several factors that can influence performance when comparing processors in different families for example an ibm pc with an intel 80486 cpu running at 50 mhz will be about twice as fast internally only as one with the same cpu and memory running at 25 mhz while the same will not be true for mips r4000 running at the same clock rate as the two are different processors that implement different architectures and microarchitectures further a cumulative clock rate measure is sometimes assumed by taking the total cores and multiplying by the total clock rate e g a dual core 2 8 ghz processor running at a cumulative 5 6 ghz there are many other factors to consider when comparing the performance of cpus like the width of the cpu s data bus the latency of the memory and the cache architecture the clock rate alone is generally considered to be an inaccurate measure of performance when comparing different cpus families software benchmarks are more useful clock rates can sometimes be misleading since the amount of work different cpus can do in one cycle varies for example superscalar processors can execute more than one instruction per cycle on average yet it is not uncommon for them to do less in a clock cycle in addition subscalar cpus or use of parallelism can also affect the performance of the computer regardless of clock rate see also edit crystal oscillator frequencies double data rate quad data rate pulse wave instructions per second moore s law references edit clock at the free on line dictionary of computing us 6826738 optimization of die placement on wafers us 6694492 method and apparatus for optimizing production yield and operational performance of integrated circuits soderstrom thomas 11 december 2006 overclocking guide part 1 risks choices and benefits who overclocks overclocking early processors was as simple and as limited as changing the discrete clock crystal the advent of adjustable clock generators has allowed overclocking to be done without changing parts such as the clock crystal highest clock frequency achieved by a silicon processor chiappetta marco 23 september 2011 amd breaks 8 ghz overclock with upcoming fx processor sets world record with amd fx 8350 hothardware archived from the original on 2015 03 10 retrieved 2012 04 28 cpu z validator world records 8 79ghz fx 8350 is the fastest ever cpu rog republic of gamers global james dave 16 december 2019 amd s ryzen rules overclocking world records but can t beat a 5 year old chip pcgamesn retrieved 23 november 2021 cpu frequency hall of fame hwbot org hwbot retrieved 23 november 2021 nasir hassam 12 january 2025 intel i9 14900kf overclocker clinches cpu frequency world record at 9 12 ghz wytiwx joins elmor as the only person to push a cpu past 9 ghz tom s hardware products formerly raptor lake www intel com retrieved 2024 07 05 frank michael the reversible and quantum computing group revcomp www cise ufl edu retrieved 2024 03 17 swaine michael 2004 backward to the future dr dobb s retrieved 2024 03 17 michael p frank reversible computing a requirement for extreme supercomputing matthew arthur morrison theory synthesis and application of adiabatic and reversible logic circuits for security applications 2014 v t e processor technologies models abstract machine stored program computer finite state machine with datapath hierarchical deterministic finite automaton queue automaton cellular automaton quantum cellular automaton turing machine alternating turing machine universal post turing quantum nondeterministic turing machine probabilistic turing machine hypercomputation zeno machine belt machine stack machine register machines counter pointer random access random access stored program architecture microarchitecture von neumann harvard modified dataflow transport triggered cellular endianness memory access numa huma load store register memory cache hierarchy memory hierarchy virtual memory secondary storage heterogeneous fabric multiprocessing cognitive neuromorphic instruction set architectures types orthogonal instruction set cisc risc application specific edge trips vliw epic misc oisc nisc zisc visc architecture quantum computing comparison addressing modes instruction sets motorola 68000 series vax pdp 11 x86 arm stanford mips mips mips x power power powerpc power isa clipper architecture sparc superh dec alpha etrax cris m32r unicore itanium openrisc risc v microblaze lmc system 3x0 s 360 s 370 s 390 z architecture tilera isa visc architecture epiphany architecture others execution instruction pipelining pipeline stall operand forwarding classic risc pipeline hazards data dependency structural control false sharing out of order scoreboarding tomasulo s algorithm reservation station re order buffer register renaming wide issue speculative branch prediction memory dependence prediction parallelism level bit bit serial word instruction pipelining scalar superscalar task thread process data vector memory distributed multithreading temporal simultaneous hyperthreading simultaneous and heterogenous speculative preemptive cooperative flynn s taxonomy sisd simd array processing simt pipelined processing associative processing swar misd mimd spmd processor performance transistor count instructions per cycle ipc cycles per instruction cpi instructions per second ips floating point operations per second flops transactions per second tps synaptic updates per second sups performance per watt ppw cache performance metrics computer performance by orders of magnitude types central processing unit cpu graphics processing unit gpu gpgpu vector barrel stream tile processor coprocessor pal asic fpga fpoa cpld multi chip module mcm system in a package sip package on a package pop by application embedded system microprocessor microcontroller mobile ultra low voltage asip soft microprocessor systems on chip system on a chip soc multiprocessor mpsoc cypress psoc network on a chip noc hardware accelerators coprocessor ai accelerator graphics processing unit gpu image processor vision processing unit vpu physics processing unit ppu digital signal processor dsp tensor processing unit tpu secure cryptoprocessor network processor baseband processor word size 1 bit 4 bit 8 bit 12 bit 15 bit 16 bit 24 bit 32 bit 48 bit 64 bit 128 bit 256 bit 512 bit bit slicing others variable core count single core multi core manycore heterogeneous architecture components core cache cpu cache scratchpad memory data cache instruction cache replacement policies coherence bus clock rate clock signal fifo functional units arithmetic logic unit alu address generation unit agu floating point unit fpu memory management unit mmu load store unit translation lookaside buffer tlb branch predictor branch target predictor integrated memory controller imc memory management unit instruction decoder logic combinational sequential glue logic gate quantum array registers processor register status register stack register register file memory buffer memory address register program counter control unit hardwired control unit instruction unit data buffer write buffer microcode rom counter datapath multiplexer demultiplexer adder multiplier cpu binary decoder address deco...