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ive strategy in the monkeys who hear the call and scientists were able to elicit predictable responses from the monkeys using loudspeakers and prerecorded sounds other vocalisations may be used for identification if an infant monkey calls its mother turns toward it but other vervet mothers turn instead toward that infant s mother to see what she will do 179 180 similarly researchers have demonstrated that chimpanzees in captivity use different words in reference to different foods they recorded vocalisations that chimps made in reference for example to grapes and then other chimps pointed at pictures of grapes when they heard the recorded sound 181 182 ardipithecus ramidus edit a study published in homo journal of comparative human biology in 2017 claims that ardipithecus ramidus a hominin dated at approximately 4 5 ma shows the first evidence of an anatomical shift in the hominin lineage suggestive of increased vocal capability 183 this study compared the skull of a ramidus with 29 chimpanzee skulls of different ages and found that in numerous features a ramidus clustered with the infant and juvenile measures as opposed to the adult measures such affinity with the shape dimensions of infant and juvenile chimpanzee skull architecture it was argued may have resulted in greater vocal capability this assertion was based on the notion that the chimpanzee vocal tract ratios that prevent speech are a result of growth factors associated with puberty growth factors absent in a ramidus ontogeny a ramidus was also found to have a degree of cervical lordosis more conducive to vocal modulation when compared with chimpanzees as well as cranial base architecture suggestive of increased vocal capability what was significant in this study according to the authors 183 was the observation that the changes in skull architecture that correlate with reduced aggression are the same changes necessary for the evolution of early hominin vocal ability in integrating data on anatomical correlates of primate mating and social systems with studies of skull and vocal tract architecture that facilitate speech production the authors argue that paleoanthropologists prior to their study have failed to understand the important relationship between early hominin social evolution and the evolution of our species capacities for language while the skull of a ramidus according to the authors lacks the anatomical impediments to speech evident in chimpanzees it is unclear what the vocal capabilities of this early hominin were while they suggest a ramidus based on similar vocal tract ratios may have had vocal capabilities equivalent to a modern human infant or very young child they concede this is a debatable and speculative hypothesis however they do claim that changes in skull architecture through processes of social selection were a necessary prerequisite for language evolution as they write we propose that as a result of paedomorphic morphogenesis of the cranial base and craniofacial morphology ar ramidus would have not been limited in terms of the mechanical components of speech production as chimpanzees and bonobos are it is possible that ar ramidus had vocal capability approximating that of chimpanzees and bonobos with its idiosyncratic skull morphology not resulting in any significant advances in speech capability in this sense the anatomical features analysed in this essay would have been exapted in later more voluble species of hominin however given the selective advantages of pro social vocal synchrony we suggest the species would have developed significantly more complex vocal abilities than chimpanzees and bonobos 183 early homo edit anatomically some scholars believe that features of bipedalism developed in the australopithecines around 3 5 million years ago around this time these structural developments within the skull led to a more prominently l shaped vocal tract 184 page needed in order to generate the sounds modern homo sapiens are capable of making such as vowels it is vital that early homo populations must have a specifically shaped voice track and a lower sitting larynx 185 opposing research previously suggested that neanderthals were physically incapable of creating the full range of vocals seen in modern humans due to the differences in larynx placement establishing distinct larynx positions through fossil remains of homo sapiens and neanderthals would support this theory however modern research has revealed that the hyoid bone was indistinguishable in the two populations though research has shown a lower sitting larynx is important to producing speech another theory states it may not be as important as once thought 186 cataldo migliano and vinicius report speech alone appears inadequate for transmitting stone tool making knowledge and suggest that speech may have emerged due to an increase in complex social interactions 187 archaic homo sapiens edit hmmmmm redirects here for humming see humming disambiguation further information archaic humans steven mithen proposed the term hmmmmm for the pre linguistic system of communication posited to have been used by archaic homo beginning with homo ergaster and reaching the highest sophistication in the middle pleistocene with homo heidelbergensis and homo neanderthalensis hmmmmm is an acronym for h olistic non compositional m anipulative utterances are commands or suggestions not descriptive statements m ulti m odal acoustic as well as gestural and facial m usical and m imetic 188 homo erectus edit evidence for homo erectus potentially using language comes in the form of acheulean tool usage the use of abstract thought in the formation of acheulean hand axes coincides with the symbol creation necessary for simple language 189 recent language theories present recursion as the unique facet of human language and theory of mind 190 191 however breaking down language into its symbolic parts separating meaning from the requirements of grammar it becomes possible to see that language does not depend on either recursion or grammar this can be evidenced by the pirahã language users in brazil that have no myth or creation stories no numbers and no colors within their language 192 this is to highlight that even though grammar may have been unavailable use of foresight planning and symbolic thought can be evidence of language as early as one million years ago with homo erectus homo heidelbergensis edit see also homo heidelbergensis language homo heidelbergensis was a close relative most probably a migratory descendant of homo ergaster some researchers believe this species to be the first hominin to make controlled vocalisations possibly mimicking animal vocalisations 188 and that as homo heidelbergensis developed more sophisticated culture proceeded from this point and possibly developed an early form of symbolic language homo neanderthalensis edit see also neanderthal behavior language the discovery in 1989 of the neanderthal kebara 2 hyoid bone suggests that neanderthals may have been anatomically capable of producing sounds similar to modern humans 193 194 the hypoglossal nerve which passes through the hypoglossal canal controls the movements of the tongue which may have enabled voicing for size exaggeration see size exaggeration hypothesis below or may reflect speech abilities 25 195 196 197 198 199 however although neanderthals may have been anatomically able to speak richard g klein in 2004 doubted that they possessed a fully modern language he largely bases his doubts on the fossil record of archaic humans and their stone tool kit bart de boer in 2017 acknowledges this ambiguity of a universally accepted neanderthal vocal tract however he notes the similarities in the thoracic vertebral canal potential air sacs and hyoid bones between modern humans and neanderthals to suggest the presence of complex speech 200 for two million years following the emergence of homo habilis the stone tool technology of hominins changed very little klein who has worked extensively on ancient stone tools describes the crude stone tool kit of archaic humans as impossible to break down into categories based on their function and reports that neanderthals seem to have had little concern for the final aesthetic form of their tools klein argues that the neanderthal brain may have not reached the level of complexity required for modern speech even if the physical apparatus for speech production was well developed 201 202 the issue of the neanderthal s level of cultural and technological sophistication remains a controversial one citation needed based on computer simulations used to evaluate that evolution of language that resulted in showing three stages in the evolution of syntax neanderthals are thought to have been in stage 2 showing they had something more evolved than proto language but not quite as complex as the language of modern humans 203 some researchers applying auditory bioengineering models to computerised tomography scans of neanderthal skulls have asserted that neanderthals had auditory capacity very similar to that of anatomically modern humans 204 these researchers claim that this finding implies that neanderthals evolved the auditory capacities to support a vocal communication system as efficient as modern human speech 204 homo sapiens edit see also anatomically modern humans and behavioral modernity anatomically modern humans begin to appear in the fossil record in ethiopia some 200 000 years ago 205 although there is still much debate as to whether behavioural modernity emerged in africa at around the same time a growing number of archaeologists nowadays when invoke the southern african middle stone age use of red ochre pigments for example at blombos cave as evidence that modern anatomy and behaviour co evolved 206 these archaeologists argue strongly that if modern humans at this early stage were using red ochre pigments for ritual and symbolic purposes they probably had symbolic language as well 27 according to the recent african origins hypothesis from around 60 000 50 000 years ago 207 a group of humans left africa and began migrating to occupy the rest of the world carrying language and symbolic culture with them 208 descended larynx edit this section needs more citations please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed may 2021 learn how and when to remove this message the larynx or voice box is an organ in the neck housing the vocal folds which are responsible for phonation in humans the larynx is descended the human species is not unique in this respect goats dogs pigs and tamarins lower the larynx temporarily to emit loud calls 209 several deer species have a permanently lowered larynx which may be lowered still further by males during their roaring displays 210 lions jaguars cheetahs and domestic cats also do this 211 however laryngeal descent in nonhumans according to philip lieberman is not accompanied by descent of the hyoid hence the tongue remains horizontal in the oral cavity preventing it from acting as a pharyngeal articulator 212 larynx anatomy of the larynx anterolateral view anatomical terminology edit on wikidata despite all this scholars remain divided as to how special the human vocal tract really is it has been shown that the larynx does descend to some extent during development in chimpanzees followed by hyoidal descent 213 as against this philip lieberman points out that only humans have evolved permanent and substantial laryngeal descent in association with hyoidal descent resulting in a curved tongue and two tube vocal tract with 1 1 proportions he argues that neanderthals and early anatomically modern humans could not have possessed supralaryngeal vocal tracts capable of producing fully human speech 214 uniquely in the human case simple contact between the epiglottis and velum is no longer possible disrupting the normal mammalian separation of the respiratory and digestive tracts during swallowing since this entails substantial costs increasing the risk of choking while swallowing food we are forced to ask what benefits might have outweighed those costs the obvious benefit so it is claimed must have been speech but this idea has been vigorously contested one objection is that humans are in fact not seriously at risk of choking on food medical statistics indicate that accidents of this kind are extremely rare 215 another objection is that in the view of most scholars speech as it is known emerged relatively late in human evolution roughly contemporaneously with the emergence of homo sapiens 216 a development as complex as the reconfiguration of the human vocal tract would have required much more time implying an early date of origin this discrepancy in timescales undermines the idea that human vocal flexibility was initially driven by selection pressures for speech thus not excluding that it was selected for e g improved singing ability size exaggeration hypothesis edit to lower the larynx is to increase the length of the vocal tract in turn lowering formant frequencies so that the voice sounds deeper giving an impression of greater size john ohala argues that the function of the lowered larynx in humans especially males is probably to enhance threat displays rather than speech itself 217 ohala points out that if the lowered larynx were an adaptation for speech adult human males would be expected to be better adapted in this respect than adult females whose larynx is considerably less low however females outperform males in verbal tests 218 falsifying this whole line of reasoning w tecumseh fitch likewise argues that this was the original selective advantage of laryngeal lowering in the human species although according to fitch the initial lowering of the larynx in humans had nothing to do with speech the increased range of possible formant patterns was subsequently co opted for speech size exaggeration remains the sole function of the extreme laryngeal descent observed in male deer consistent with the size exaggeration hypothesis a second descent of the larynx occurs at puberty in humans although only in males in response to the objection that the larynx is descended in human females fitch suggests that mothers vocalizing to protect their infants would also have benefited from this ability 219 phonemic diversity edit in 2011 quentin atkinson published a survey of phonemes from 500 different languages as well as language families and compared their phonemic diversity by region number of speakers and distance from africa the survey revealed that african languages had the largest number of phonemes and oceania and south america had the smallest number after allowing for the number of speakers the phonemic diversity was compared to over 2000 possible origin locations atkinson s best fit model is that language originated in western central or southern africa between 80 000 and 160 000 years ago this pr...