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g properties of organic oils were commonly known to early european painters however the difficulty in acquiring and working the materials meant that they were rarely used and indeed the slow drying was seen as a disadvantage 13 the paint was made with the yolk of eggs and therefore the substance would harden and adhere to the surface it was applied to the pigment was made from plants sand and different soils most paints use either oil or water as a base the diluent solvent or vehicle for the pigment the flemish trained or influenced antonello da messina who vasari wrongly credited with the introduction of oil paint to italy 14 does seem to have improved the formula by adding litharge or lead ii oxide a still extant example of 17th century house oil painting is ham house in surrey england where a primer was used along with several undercoats and an elaborate decorative overcoat the pigment and oil mixture would have been ground into a paste with a mortar and pestle the painters did the process by hand which exposed them to lead poisoning due to the white lead powder in 1718 marshall smith invented a machine or engine for the grinding of colors in england it is not known precisely how it operated but it was a device that dramatically increased the efficiency of pigment grinding soon a company called emerton and manby was advertising exceptionally low priced paints that had been ground with labor saving technology paint used every day white paint on a wall in suzdal russia one pound of colour ground in a horse mill will paint twelve yards of work whereas colour ground any other way will not do half that quantity by the proper onset of the industrial revolution in the mid 18th century paint was being ground in steam powered mills and an alternative to lead based pigments had been found in a white derivative of zinc oxide interior house painting increasingly became the norm as the 19th century progressed both for decorative reasons and because the paint was effective in preventing the walls rotting from damp linseed oil was also increasingly used as an inexpensive binder in 1866 sherwin williams in the united states opened as a large paint maker and invented a paint that could be used from the tin without preparation it was only when the stimulus of world war ii created a shortage of linseed oil in the supply market that artificial resins or alkyds were invented cheap and easy to make they held the color well and lasted for a long time 15 types edit pigmented edit through the 20th century paints used pigments typically suspended in a liquid structural edit in the 21st century paints that used structural color were created aluminium flakes dotted with smaller aluminium nanoparticles could be tuned to produce arbitrary colors by adjusting the nanoparticle sizes rather than picking mixing minerals to do so these paints weighed a tiny fraction of the weight of conventional paints a particular advantage in air and road vehicles they reflect heat from sunlight and do not break down outdoors preliminary experiments suggest it can reduce temperatures by 20 to 30 degrees fahrenheit vs conventional paint its constituents are also less toxic 16 making the paint starts with a thin double sided mirror the researchers deposited metallic nanoparticles on both sides of the sheet large sheets were ground to produce small flakes 16 components edit vehicle edit the binder is the film forming component of paint 17 and the vehicle is composed of binder if it is necessary to thin it with a diluent like solvent or water it is a combination of binder and diluent 18 19 in this case once the paint has dried or cured very nearly all of the diluent has evaporated and only the binder is left on the coated surface thus an important quantity in coatings formulation is the vehicle solids sometimes called the resin solids of the formula this is the proportion of the wet coating weight that is binder i e the polymer backbone of the film that will remain after drying or curing is complete the volume of paint after it has dried therefore only leaving the solids is expressed as the volume solid binder or film former edit the binder is the only component that is always present among all the various types of formulations many binders must be thick enough to be applied and thinned the type of thinner if present varies with the binder the binder imparts properties such as gloss durability flexibility and toughness 20 binders include synthetic or natural resins such as alkyds acrylics vinyl acrylics vinyl acetate ethylene vae polyurethanes polyesters melamine resins epoxy silanes or siloxanes or oils binders can be categorized according to the mechanisms for film formation thermoplastic mechanisms include drying and coalescence drying refers to simply evaporating the solvent or thinner to leave a coherent film behind coalescence refers to a mechanism that involves drying followed by actual interpenetration and fusion of formerly discrete particles thermoplastic film forming mechanisms are sometimes described as thermoplastic cure but that is a misnomer because no chemical curing reactions are required to knit the film on the other hand thermosetting mechanisms are true curing mechanisms involving chemical reaction s among the polymers that make up the binder 21 thermoplastic mechanisms edit some films are formed by simply cooling the binder for example encaustic or wax paints are liquid when warm and harden upon cooling in many cases they re soften or liquify if reheated paints that dry by solvent evaporation and contain the solid binder dissolved in a solvent are known as lacquers a solid film forms when the solvent evaporates because no chemical crosslinking is involved the film can re dissolve in solvent lacquers are unsuitable for applications where chemical resistance is important classic nitrocellulose lacquers fall into this category as do non grain raising stains composed of dyes in solvent performance varies by formulation but lacquers generally tend to have better uv resistance and lower corrosion resistance than comparable systems that cure by polymerization or coalescence the paint type known as emulsion in the uk and latex in the united states is a water borne dispersion of sub micrometer polymer particles these terms in their respective countries cover all paints that use synthetic polymers such as acrylic vinyl acrylic pva styrene acrylic etc as binders 22 the term latex in the context of paint in the united states simply means an aqueous dispersion latex rubber from the rubber tree is not an ingredient these dispersions are prepared by emulsion polymerization such paints cure by a process called coalescence where first the water and then the trace or coalescing solvent evaporate and draw together and soften the binder particles and fuse them together into irreversibly bound networked structures so that the paint cannot redissolve in the solvent water that originally carried it the residual surfactants in paint as well as hydrolytic effects with some polymers cause the paint to remain susceptible to softening and over time degradation by water the general term of latex paint is usually used in the united states while the term emulsion paint is used for the same products in the uk and the term latex paint is not used at all thermosetting mechanisms edit paints that cure by polymerization are generally one or two package coatings that polymerize by way of a chemical reaction and cure into a cross linked film depending on composition they may need to dry first by evaporation of solvent classic two package epoxies or polyurethanes 23 would fall into this category 24 the drying oils counter intuitively cure by a crosslinking reaction even if they are not put through an oven cycle and seem to dry in air the film formation mechanism of the simplest examples involves the first evaporation of solvents followed by a reaction with oxygen from the environment over a period of days weeks and even months to create a crosslinked network 18 classic alkyd enamels would fall into this category oxidative cure coatings are catalyzed by metal complex driers such as cobalt naphthenate though cobalt octoate is more common recent environmental requirements restrict the use of volatile organic compounds vocs and alternative means of curing have been developed generally for industrial purposes uv curing paints for example enable formulation with very low amounts of solvent or even none at all this can be achieved because of the monomers and oligomers used in the coating have relatively very low molecular weight and are therefore low enough in viscosity to enable good fluid flow without the need for additional thinner if solvent is present in significant amounts generally it is mostly evaporated first and then crosslinking is initiated by ultraviolet light similarly powder coatings contain no solvent flow and cure are produced by the heating of the substrate after electrostatic application of the dry powder 25 combination mechanisms edit so called catalyzed lacquers or crosslinking latex coatings are designed to form films by a combination of methods classic drying plus a curing reaction that benefits from the catalyst there are paints called plastisols organosols which are made by blending pvc granules with a plasticiser these are stoved and the mix coalesces diluent or solvent or thinner edit the main purposes of the diluent are to dissolve the polymer and adjust the viscosity of the paint it is volatile and does not become part of the paint film it also controls flow and application properties and in some cases can affect the stability of the paint while in liquid state its main function is as the carrier for the non volatile components to spread heavier oils for example linseed as in oil based interior house paint a thinner oil is required these volatile substances impart their properties temporarily once the solvent has evaporated the remaining paint is fixed to the surface this component is optional some paints have no diluent water is the main diluent for water borne paints even the co solvent types solvent borne also called oil based paints can have various combinations of organic solvents as the diluent often referred to as paint thinner including aliphatics aromatics alcohols ketones and white spirit specific examples are organic solvents such as petroleum distillate esters glycol ethers and the like sometimes volatile low molecular weight synthetic resins also serve as diluents pigment dye and filler edit main article pigment pigments are solid particles or flakes incorporated in the paint usually to contribute color to the paint film pigments impart color by selective absorption of certain wavelengths of light and or by scattering or reflecting light the particle size of the pigment is critical to the light scattering mechanism the size of such particles can be measured with a hegman gauge dyes on the other hand are dissolved in the paint and impart color only by the selective absorption mechanism 26 paints can be formulated with only pigments only dyes both or neither pigments can also be used to give the paint special physical or optical properties as opposed to imparting color in which case they are called functional pigments 27 fillers or extenders are an important class of the functional pigments these are typically used to build film thickness and or reduce the cost of the paint or they can impart toughness and texture to the film 28 fillers are usually cheap and inert materials such as diatomaceous earth talc lime barytes clay etc floor paints that must resist abrasion may contain fine quartz sand as a filler sometimes a single pigment can serve both decorative and functional purposes for example some decorative pigments protect the substrate from the harmful effects of ultraviolet light by making the paint opaque to these wavelengths i e by selectively absorbing them these hiding pigments include titanium dioxide phthalo blue red iron oxide and many others some pigments are toxic such as the lead pigments that are used in lead paint paint manufacturers began replacing white lead pigments with titanium white titanium dioxide before lead was banned in paint for residential use in 1978 by the us consumer product safety commission the titanium dioxide used in most paints today is often coated with silica alumina zirconium for various reasons such as better exterior durability or better hiding performance opacity promoted by more optimal spacing within the paint film 29 micaceous iron oxide mio is another alternative to lead for protection of steel giving more protection against water and light damage than most paints when mio pigments are ground into fine particles most cleave into shiny layers which reflect light thus minimising uv degradation and protecting the resin binder most pigments used in paint tend to be spherical but lamellar pigments such as glass flake and mio have overlapping plates which impede the path of water molecules 30 for optimum performance mio should have a high content of thin flake like particles resembling mica iso 10601 sets two levels of mio content 31 mio is often derived from a form of hematite pigments can be classified as either natural or synthetic natural pigments are taken from the earth or plant sources and include colorants such as metal oxides or carbon black or various clays calcium carbonate mica silicas and talcs synthetics include a host of colorants created in the lab as well as engineered molecules calcined clays blanc fixe precipitated calcium carbonate and synthetic pyrogenic silicas the pigments and dyes that are used as colorants are classified by chemical type using the color index system which is commercially significant 32 additives edit besides the three main categories of ingredients binder diluent pigment paint can have a wide variety of miscellaneous additives which are usually added in small amounts yet provide a significant effect on the product some examples include additives to modify texture surface tension improve flow properties improve the finished appearance increase wet edge improve pigment stability impart antifreeze properties control foaming control skinning create acrylic pouring cells etc other types of additives include catalysts thickeners stabilizers emulsifiers texturizers adhesion promoters uv stabilizers flatteners de glossing agents biocides to fight bacterial growth and the like additives normally do not significantly alter the percentages of individual components in a formulation 33 color changing edit various technologies exist for making paints that change color thermochromic ink and coatings contain materials that change conformation when heat is applied or removed and so they change color liquid crystals have been used in such paints such as in the thermometer strips and tapes used in aquaria and novelty promotional thermal cups and straws photochromic materials are used...